Greater Himalayan Research Articles

The Efficacy of Collaboration: Tibetan Medicine Across Countries and Conversations

First delivered as a plenary lecture at theictam viiicongress in September 2013 in South Korea, this paper discusses two interdisciplinary and collaborative workshops focusing on Tibetan medicine (also known as Sowa Rigpa) in contemporary contexts. The first event, which took place in December 2011, brought together nearly 40 practitioners of Sowa Rigpa from the greater Himalaya and Tibetan regions of the People’s Republic of China (prc), along with four anthropologists, for intensive, interactive discussions on pharmacology by making medicines together. The second event, which took place in October 2012 in Xining, Qinghai Province,prc, involved practitioners, educators, and researchers from the Arura Group, one of the leading Tibetan medicine institutions in theprc, with researchers from the United States, Europe, andtar(Tibet Autonomous Region) for in-depth discussions about integrative clinical research and the place of the humanities and social sciences in the study of traditional medicines. Both events were supported, directly or indirectly, by the International Association for the Study of Traditional Asian Medicine (iastam), and abided in spirit with the mission of this organisation, namely, to bring scholars and practitioners of Asian medicine together for mutual exchange. While the Kathmandu event emphasised hands-on learning and the co-production of both knowledge and things, the Xining workshop provided Tibetan medical colleagues in theprcwith the opportunity to engage with broad discussions, at once methodological and epistemological, about the meaning, purpose, and aims of research on traditional medicines today.

Soybean Seed Quality Characteristics in Response to Indigenous Bradyrhizobium Inoculation and N Fertilization in Kashmir–Pakistan

AbstractThe objective of this study was to quantify changes in soybean seed quality characteristics in response to indigenous Bradyrhizobium inoculation and N fertilization applied under field conditions during the years 2009 and 2010. Seven indigenous Bradyrhizobium isolates were isolated from the different locations under the foothills of great Himalayas Rawalakot Kashmir, Pakistan. The field isolates were compared to a reference strain (exotic) TAL102, three N fertilizer rates and to an un‐inoculated control. The seed oil content, fatty acid composition, seed N, P and K concentration and seed N, P and K uptake were quantified. Bradyrhizobium inoculation and N fertilization significantly increased oil content compared to the un‐inoculated control. The seed oil content varied between 16.2 and 21.5 %, highest in the seeds treated with indigenous Bradyrhizobium strains NR22, NR25 and NR35, and mainly composed of linoleic acid (47 %), and oleic acid (24 %). Inoculation and N fertilization both decreased the saturated fatty acids (palmitic and stearic) and increased unsaturated fatty acids (linoleic acid and oleic acid). The mineral nutrient content of N, P, and K and their accumulation in seed increased by 2–3‐fold compared to the corresponding control. Indigenous Bradyrhizobium strains were able to generate the highest values for seed oil content (NR22, NR25, and NR35), unsaturated fatty acids, i.e. linoleic acid and oleic acid (NR25, and NR35) and N, P and K uptake (NR20, and NR22). There were noticeable differences among the treatments in terms of essential fatty acid, oil, and mineral nutrient content. The study demonstrates the potential benefits of using indigenous Bradyrhizobium strains in order to achieve high quality soybean seeds that can be used as a balanced health product.

Along-strike changes in Himalayan thrust geometry: Topographic and tectonic discontinuities in western Nepal

© 2015 Geological Society of America. Geodetic and seismologic studies support a tectonic model for the central Himalaya wherein ~2 cm/yr of Indo-Asian convergence is accommodated along the primary decollement under the range, the Main Himalayan thrust. A steeper midcrustal ramp in the Main Himalayan thrust is commonly invoked as driving rapid rock uplift along a range-parallel band in the Greater Himalaya. This tectonic model, developed primarily from studies in central Nepal, is commonly assumed to project along strike with little lateral variation in Main Himalayan thrust geometry or associated rock uplift patterns. Here, we synthesize multiple lines of evidence for a major discontinuity in the Main Himalayan thrust in western Nepal. Analysis of topography and seismicity indicates that west of ~82.5°E, the single band of steep topography and seismicity along the Main Himalayan thrust ramp in central Nepal bifurcates around a high-elevation, low-relief landscape, resulting in a two-step topographic front along an ~150 km segment of the central Himalaya. Although multiple models could explain this bifurcation, the full suite of data appears to be most consistent with a northward bend to the Main Himalayan thrust ramp and activation of a young duplex horse to the south. This poorly documented segmentation of the Main Himalayan thrust has important implications for the seismogenic potential of the western Nepal seismic gap and for models of the ongoing evolution of the orogen.

Timing and conditions of metamorphism and melt crystallization in Greater Himalayan rocks, eastern and central Bhutan: insight from U–Pb zircon and monazite geochronology and trace-element analyses

Within the eastern Himalaya in central and eastern Bhutan, Greater Himalayan (GH) rocks are inter- preted to have been thickened by the Kakhtang thrust (KT). In order to understand the metamorphic and exhumation history of the GH and to evaluate the structural significance of the KT, zircon and monazite from twenty samples were analyzed by laser-ablation split-stream ICPMS. In eastern Bhutan, zircon and monazite from samples collected in the KT hanging wall revealed ca. 36-28 Ma metamorphism. Subsequently, the initiation of melt crystallization shows a trend with structural distance above the KT, with early melt crystallization (ca. 27 Ma) in the structurally highest samples and younger melt crystallization (ca. 16 Ma) for leucosomes within the KT zone. Melt crystallization was protracted and continued until ca. 14-13 Ma in both the KT hanging wall and the footwall. In comparison, in central Bhutan, two leucosomes revealed extended melt crystal- lization from ca. 31 to 19 Ma. The youngest zircon dates from samples exposed structurally above and below the KT are similar, indicating that the KT was not as significant of

Snow Depth Estimation in the Indian Himalaya Using Multi-Channel Passive Microwave Radiometer

Snow depth is an important parameter for avalanche forecast and hydrological studies. In the Himalaya, manual snow depth data collection is difficult due to remote and rugged terrain and the severe weather conditions. However, microwave-based sensors in various satellites have the capability to estimate snow depth in all weather conditions. In the present study, experiments were performed to establish an algorithm for snow depth estimation using ground-based passive microwave radiometer with 6.9, 18.7 and 37 GHz antenna frequencies at Dhundhi and Patseo, Himachal Pradesh, India. Different layers in the snowpack were identified and layer properties, i.e. thickness, density, moisture content, etc. were measured manually and using a snow fork. Brightness temperature ( T B ) of the entire snowpack and of the individual snow layers was measured using passive microwave radiometer. It was observed that T B of the snow is affected by various snow properties such as depth, density, physical temperature and wetness. A decrease in T B with increase in snow depth was observed for all types of snow. T B of the snowpack was observed higher at Dhundhi in comparison to Patseo. Based on the measured radiometer data, snow depth algorithms were developed for the Greater Himalaya and Pir-Panjal ranges. These algorithms were validated with ground measurements for snow depth at different observatory locations and a good agreement between the two was observed (absolute error: 7 to 39 cm; correlation: 0.95).

Structural, geochronological and geochemical evidence for two distinct thrust sheets in the ‘Main Central thrust zone’, the Main Central thrust and Ramgarh–Munsiari thrust: implications for upper crustal shortening in central Nepal

Abstract Two orogen-scale thrusts structurally underneath Greater Himalayan (GH) rocks characterize the structural architecture of Himalaya in central Nepal. The Main Central thrust (MCT) is at the base of the GH with the Lesser Himalayan (LH) Robang Formation in the footwall, which is the hanging wall of the Ramgarh–Munsiari thrust (RMT). At Kodari-Tatopani and Malekhu, U–Pb detrital zircon age populations from the RMT sheet yield a maximum depositional age of c. 1838 and c. 1871 Ma. U–Pb analyses of igneous zircons from the RMT sheet yield a crystallization age of c. 1750 Ma at both Galchhi and Kodari-Tatopani. The εNd(0) values of pelitic rocks from the RMT sheet at Kodari-Tatopani range from c. −23 to −25; whereas, GH rocks have values from c. −12 to −18. These data indicate that the RMT sheet carries the Palaeoproterozoic LH rock and the MCT carries the GH rock. At Kodari-Tatopani, the thrust previously mapped as the MCT is interpreted to be the RMT. Positively identifying the RMT sheet in all three locations yields a more accurate kinematic evolution and confirms its orogenic-scale presence in central Nepal. Supplementary material: U–Pb geochronological analyses are available at http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP18775

Trends in extreme daily rainfall and temperature indices over South Asia

Over the last few decades, weather and climate extremes have become a major focus of researchers, the media and general public due to their damaging effects on human society and infrastructure. Trends in indices of climate extremes are studied for the South Asian region using high-quality records of daily temperature and precipitation observations. Data records from 210 (265) temperature (precipitation) observation stations are analysed over the period 1971-2000 (1961-2000). Spatial maps of station trends, time series of regional averages and frequency distribution analysis form the basis of this study. Due to the highly diverse geography of the South Asian region, the results are also described for some specific regions, such as the island of Sri Lanka; the tropical region (excluding Sri Lanka); the Greater Himalayas above 35°N, the Eastern Himalayas (Nepal) and the Thar Desert. Generally, changes in the frequency of temperature extremes over South Asia are what one would expect in a warming world; warm extremes have become more common and cold extremes less common. The warming influence is greater in the Eastern Himalayas compared with that in the Greater Himalayas. The Thar Desert also shows enhanced warming, but increases are mostly less than in the Eastern Himalayas. Changes in the indices of extreme precipitation are more mixed than those of temperature, with spatially coherent changes evident only at relatively small scales. Nevertheless, most extreme precipitation indices show increases in the South Asia average, consistent with globally averaged results. The indices trends are further studied in the context of Atmospheric Brown Clouds (ABCs) over the region. Countries falling within the ABC hotspot namely Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) have shown a different behaviour on the trends of extreme indices compared with the parts outside this hotspot. IGP has increased temperature and decreased rainfall and tally closely with the actual trends.

Crustal deformation revealed by GPS in Kumaun Himalaya, India

The foremost Global Positioning System (GPS) derived measurements in the Kumaun Himalaya indicate that most of the crustal motion of the Indian plate is accommodating towards the base as well as on the hanging wall of Main Central Thrust (MCT). Deformation pattern within the Kumaun Himalaya varies from south to north and indicates maximum deformation rate near MCT. Our study, based on the campaign mode GPS survey during 2003 - 2006, reveals that the area between north of North Almora Thrust (NAT) and at the base of Great Himalaya registers maximum strain rate, which is lowered towards the Trans Himadri Fault (THF). The GAMIT-GLOBK processed campaign data of the area show that currently, the Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF) and Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) are locked with the Indian plate, and a 6.7 ± 2.5 mm/yr of horizontal shortening is taking place between the Lesser Himalaya and Peninsular India.

Rapid denudation of the Himalayan orogen in the Nyalam area, southern Tibet, since the Pliocene and implications for tectonics–climate coupling

The Himalayan orogen characterized by very high variability in tectonic and climatic processes, and is thus regarded as a natural laboratory for investigating the coupling of tectonics and climate, as well as the influence of this coupling on geomorphological processes. This study uses apatite fission track (AFT) dating of samples from a 45-km-long section crossing the Great Himalaya Crystalline Complex (GHC) in the Nyalam area, southern Tibet, to constrain the timing and rate of late Cenozoic denudation. The AFT ages can be divided into two groups: (1) 15–6 Ma, to the north of Nyalam town, for which the best-fit line of elevation-age has a gentle slope of 0.05, and for which a denudation rate of 0.27 mm/a is calculated; and (2) 3–1 Ma, south of Nyalam town, for which the best-fit line has a steep slope of 0.64, and for which a denudation rate of 1.32 mm/a is calculated. The whole AFT ages has a positive correlation with sample elevation (i.e., older ages are found at higher elevations), and the geographical location of the point of inflexion of the two fitted lines corresponds closely to the junction of Poqu River near Nyalam town. By integrating the AFT data with thermo-tectonic modeling, it can be inferred that the GHC has experienced two different periods of denudation: (1) slow denudation during middle to late Miocene (15–6 Ma) is recorded in the northern part of the GHC; and (2) rapid denudation from the Pliocene to the Pleistocene (3–1 Ma) is recorded in the southern part of the GHC. An abrupt change in denudation rate occurred between the two periods, with the Pliocene–Pleistocene denudation rate being five times higher than that during the Miocene. This abrupt change in denudation rate during Pliocene pervaded the Himalayan orogen, and was roughly synchronous with a marked change in global climate at 4–3 Ma, and intensification of the Asian monsoon. Importantly, the later period of rapid denudation in the study region closely coupled to the mean annual precipitation, while there is no clear evidence for large-scale faulting activity and associated uplift during this period. Therefore, climate (precipitation) is inferred to be the main cause of the rapid denudation of the Himalayan orogen since the Pliocene.

Dominance of tectonics over climate in Himalayan denudation

Landscape denudation in actively deforming mountain ranges is controlled by a combination of rock uplift and surface runoff induced by precipitation. Whereas the relative contribution of these factors is important to our understanding of the evolution of orogenic topography, no consensus currently exists concerning their respective infl uences. To address this question, denudation rates at centennial to millennial time scales were deduced from 10Be concentrations in detrital sediments derived from 30 small basins (10-600 km2) in an ~200-km-wide region in central Nepal. Along a northward, strike-perpendicular transect, average denudation rates sharply increase from <0.5 mm/yr in the Lesser Himalayas to ~1 mm/yr when crossing the Physiographic Transition, and then accelerate to 2-3 mm/yr on the southern flank of the high peaks in the Greater Himalayas. Despite a more than five-fold increase in denudation rate between the southern and northern parts of this transect, the corresponding areas display similar precipitation rates. The primary parameter that presents a signifi cant co-variation with denudation is the long-term rockuplift rate that is interpreted to result from the ramp-fl at transition along the Main Himalayan Thrust. We propose that, in this rapidly uplifting mountain range, landscapes adjust quickly to changing climatic conditions, such that denudation is mainly limited by the rate at which material is pushed upward by tectonic processes and made available for removal by surface processes. In this particular context, variations in precipitation appear to have only a second-order role in modulating the denudation signal that is primarily set by the background rock-uplift rate. © 2014 Geological Society of America.

Samudra Manthan: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Indo-Pacific

Rising China and emerging India are becoming major maritime powers. As they build large navies secure their growing interests, both nations are roiling the waters of the Indo-Pacific --the vast littoral stretching from Africa Australasia. Invoking a tale from Hindu mythology -- Samudra Manthan or to churn the ocean --C. Raja Mohan tells the story of a Sino-Indian rivalry spilling over from the Great Himalayas into the Indian and Pacific Oceans. He examines the prospects of mitigating the tensions and constructing a stable Indo-Pacific order. America, the dominant power in the area, is being drawn into the unfolding Sino-Indian competition. Despite the huge differences in the current naval capabilities of China, India, and the United States, Mohan argues that the three countries are locked in a triangular struggle destined mould the future Indo-Pacific.

SWOT analysis of an Earthquake mock drill: A case study

Introduction: Chandigarh, also called city beautiful, located at the foot hills of great Himalayas lies in the high earthquake prone zone (Zone IV). Since historical times the area has experienced many quakes of magnitude 6 and above and is vulnerable in future. Thus, the present study exercise was done in one of the multispecialty tertiary level hospital of North India to evaluate a hospital preparedness to overcome any disaster. Methodology: To conduct the drill, administrative block of the hospital was specifically chosen. Mock drill was executed in three phases viz. Pre disaster briefing, Emergency response practice and Post disaster evaluation. One day before prior to the drill, the whole staff was familiarized with preparedness plans and expectations. Results: On the day of drill, warning siren was activated in the morning (10:32 AM) for one minute simulating period of shaking. Whole staff quickly left their chairs, hid under their tables or safer places. After one minute time, siren was put off; rest of the stuck staff ran out and moved away from building to the evacuation place. Within minutes rescue teams (police control vans, fire fighting vehicles and ambulances) arrived. Whole area was cordoned off immediately. They rescued out the injured ones and ambulances shifted them to the hospital. Fire fighting tenders put off the fire in one of the engulfed in fire. Electric supply of the whole block was cut off. Critical patients were given first aid at the site and later were shifted to hospital for further management. In a three hours exercise, a total of fifteen injured were rescued. In the Post Disaster evaluation roles and responsibilities and feedback was taken from staff. Measures were started to plug the gaps found in the exercise. Conclusion: Though, it is a first such drill conducted in a Hospital scenario in the region, such drills need to be conducted regularly based on an all-hazards approach and involving patients from patient care areas also.

Frequently encountered problems during hatching in cold arid high altitude regions such as Ladakh in India: causes and remedies

Ladakh, the Trans Himalayan part of the Jammu Kashmir State of India, is located between the Greater Himalaya and the Karakoram Range, known as the ‘cold desert’, and is comprised of two districts, Leh (45110 km2) and Kargil (14,086 km2). This area has several peculiar climatic conditions characterised by prolonged sub-zero temperatures, unfertile sandy soils with very low water holding capacities, dryness (less than 30% humidity), low oxygen content, intense solar radiation, low atmospheric pressure, high wind velocity and rugged terrain. In winter the temperature falls to -35°C and the altitude varies from 10,000 to 12,000 feet from mean sea level (MSL). The atmospheric oxygen pressure is 30% lower than of MSL. This type of cold arid desert isn't akin to the natural environment of poultry, and hatchability is a big problem due to the climatic conditions in this region. For normal hatchability at sea level, the oxygen concentration, barometric pressure, humidity and temperature should be 21%, 740 mm Hg, 65% and 99.8°F, respectively. However in this cold desert area O2 concentration is 30% lower than at sea level, barometric pressure is only 510 mm Hg, humidity is less than 30% and temperature ranges from -30C to +30°C.In the last two decades, India has reached a level of self-sufficiency in chicken production, and the poultry industry has become more sophisticated, but the situation in the cold arid part of Leh-Ladakh in India remains challenging. The main reasons for this are the non-existence of any commercial hatcheries, problems transporting day old chicks, poor availability of poultry feed ingredients and the fact that the majority of the population are Buddhist, and consequently largely vegetarian and generally avoid killing animals. The following paper reviews some of the issues of raising poultry in such inhospitable conditions, and how these can be resolved.

Missing (in-situ) snow cover data hampers climate change and runoff studies in the Greater Himalayas

The Himalayas are presently holding the largest ice masses outside the polar regions and thus (temporarily) store important freshwater resources. In contrast to the contemplation of glaciers, the role of runoff from snow cover has received comparably little attention in the past, although (i) its contribution is thought to be at least equally or even more important than that of ice melt in many Himalayan catchments and (ii) climate change is expected to have widespread and significant consequences on snowmelt runoff. Here, we show that change assessment of snowmelt runoff and its timing is not as straightforward as often postulated, mainly as larger partial pressure of H2O, CO2, CH4, and other greenhouse gases might increase net long-wave input for snowmelt quite significantly in a future atmosphere. In addition, changes in the short-wave energy balance – such as the pollution of the snow cover through black carbon – or the sensible or latent heat contribution to snowmelt are likely to alter future snowmelt and runoff characteristics as well. For the assessment of snow cover extent and depletion, but also for its monitoring over the extremely large areas of the Himalayas, remote sensing has been used in the past and is likely to become even more important in the future. However, for the calibration and validation of remotely-sensed data, and even more so in light of possible changes in snow-cover energy balance, we strongly call for more in-situ measurements across the Himalayas, in particular for daily data on new snow and snow cover water equivalent, or the respective energy balance components. Moreover, data should be made accessible to the scientific community, so that the latter can more accurately estimate climate change impacts on Himalayan snow cover and possible consequences thereof on runoff.

Structurally-controlled Melt Accumulation: Himalayan Migmatites and Related Deformation – Dhauli Ganga Valley, Garhwal Himalaya

Abstract In the uppermost parts of the Higher Himalayan Crystallines (HHC) of the Great Himalaya, widespread in situ partial melting of sillimanite+K-feldspar gneiss resulted in the formation of migmatite and resultant melt accumulation near the South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS) during various deformation events along the Dhauli Ganga valley in Garhwal. The oldest migmatite phase, designated as the Me1, parallels the main foliation Sm as the stromatite layers and concordant leucogranite bands. Younger melt phases Me2, Me3 and Me5 are recorded along small-scale ductile thrusts, extensional fabric and structureless patches, respectively. It is only the Me4 melting phase that is evidenced by large-scale melt migration along cross-cutting irregular veins. These were possible conduits for migration and accumulation of melt into larger leucogranite bodies like the Malari granite (19.0± 0.5 Ma).

Epidemiological Study of Chronic Mountain Sickness in Natives of Spiti Valley in the Greater Himalayas

This study determined the prevalence of chronic mountain sickness (CMS) and its predisposing factors among natives of Spiti Valley in the northern state of Indian Himalayas. A cross-sectional survey study was conducted in natives of Spiti Valley aged ≥ 20 years residing at altitudes of 3000 to 4200 meters. CMS was diagnosed using Qinghai criteria. Demographics, behavioral characteristics, specified symptoms of CMS were recorded, including BP, anthropometrics, evidence of RHF, PAH, and severe cyanosis. ECG, echocardiography, PFT, and Sao2 were recorded, and Hb level was estimated with the cyanmethhemoglobin method. 694 subjects free of cardiorespiratory diseases were analyzed. Prevalence of CMS was 28.7%, (95% C.I. of 25.9%-32.8%) and was higher in women than in men (36.6% vs. 15.7%, p<0.001). Erythrocythemia and hypoxemia were recorded in 10.5% and 7.5%, respectively. Age, truncal obesity, female gender, altitude of residence, and physical activity index were independent predictors of CMS with z statistics of 4.2, 2.29, -3.7, 2.8, and -2.8, respectively, and were statistically significant p<0.001. 6.2% of the surveyed population had HAPH. 28.7% (95% C.I. of 25.9%-32.8%) of the natives of the Spiti Valley in the Indian Himalayas are affected with CMS. Higher prevalence of CMS amongst women needs further studies. Westernized lifestyle appears to have predisposition to CMS.

Rising river flows throughout the twenty-first century in two Himalayan glacierized watersheds

Greater Himalayan glaciers are retreating and losing mass. A combination of the latest ensemble of climate models combined with a glacio-hydrological model suggests that in two contrasting watersheds in the Greater Himalaya, glaciers will recede but net glacier melt runoff is on a rising limb until at least 2050.

District-wise Growth of Population in Western Himalayan States of India, 1981-2011

The growth of population is an important demographic characteristic which not only helps in understanding the population change that a society has undergone, but also helps in predicting the future demographic characteristics of an area. Therefore, it is useful to study and analyze the pattern of population growth. The purpose of this study is to examine the decadal variation of population growth in Western Himalayan States of India i.e. Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand sprawling over an area of 3,31,392 sq km. It constitutes about one-tenth area of India but supports merely 2.44 percent of India's population (Census 2011). The present study is based on secondary data collected at district level for four Census years i.e. 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2011. The simple percentage method and choropleth technique have been used to present the temporal and spatial variations in growth of population. In order to identify the regions of high, low and moderate growth rate the decadal growth rate of population has been calculated for these decades (1981-1991, 1991-2001 and 2001-2011). The study reveals that the study area as a whole experienced declining trend in growth of population. However, there were marked regional variations at the district level. The majority of districts of Jammu and Kashmir have recorded sizable growth of population, whereas, the central and southern parts of the study area which comprise Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand have conversely registered low growth rate in population. Keyword: Growth Of Population,Population In Western Himalayan. INTRODUCTION: The term growth of population is generally used to refer to the change in the number of inhabitants of a territory during a specific period of time, irrespective of whether the change is negative or positive. Population growth may be measured both in absolute terms and in percentage form. Population growth is the product of a combined operation of the three population process viz. the fertility, mortality and migration. These three are also called the components of population dynamics because it is these three, which bring about dynamism in population numbers by not letting them remain static (Chandna, R. C. pp. 132133). Mountain form one of the most important bio-geographical resource zone of the world. They are remote areas covering 52% of Asia, 36% of North America, 25% of Europe, 22% f South America, 17% of Australia and 3% of Africa making up in total 24% of the earth continental surfaces (Bridges, 1990: 260). In most mountain regions, people have their livelihood on agriculture, pastoralism and use of forest resources timber, fuel wood and fodder (UNEP-WCMC, 2002, p. 17). The Indian Himalayan Region is spread between 21o57' 37o5' N latitudes and 72o40' 97o25' E longitudes. It has an area of 5, 31,250 km2 spread over12 states and constitutes about 16.16% of India's total geographical area. This great chain of mountains in Indian Territory extends all along the northern border of the country from the eastern border of Pakistan on the west to the frontiers of Myanmar in the east for about 2,500 km with an average width of 240 km. Orographically, the Himalayan mountain system is divided into Greater Himalaya (Himadri), Lesser Himalaya (Himanchal) and the Sub-Himalayan tract (Sivalik). Apart from the longitudinal divisions the Indian Himalaya is also divided into following regional divisions based on population features and vegetation elements: Western Himalaya, Central Himalaya and Eastern Himalaya. (Nandy, S.N. et al., 2000, p.12). Study Area: Western Himalayan States of India The Himalayas consist of the youngest and loftiest mountain chains in the world. Geographically as well politically, Western Himalayan region is more important from strategic point of view, because of its contiguity to Pakistan, China, Afghanistan and connecting link between Central Asian countries. Geographically, the Western Himalayas is located between 29° 5 N latitude to 37° 5 N latitude and 72° 40 E longitude to 81° 00 E longitude. The region stretched for 880 km between the Indus river in the west and the Kali river in the East, comprise Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand. It covers an area of 3, 31,392 sq km i.e. approximately One Tenth area of India but supports merely 2.44 percent of India's Population (Census 2011). Fig. 1 shows that the study area shares land frontier with Nepal in South east part, China in North 1 Sandeep Kumar And Sujan Singh. “ District-wise Growth of Population in Western Himalayan States of India, 19812011 .” Science Park 1.6 (2013): Online & Print Science Park ISSN: 2321-8045 th Volume-1, Issue-6, 29 August-2013 and North East Part, Afghanistan in North West and Pakistan in west and North West. Besides, southern Part of the study area is bordered by three states i.e. Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Regional Setting of Study Area

Sacred forests are keystone structures for forest bird conservation in southwest China’s Himalayan Mountains

Identifying and protecting “keystone structures” is essential to maintain biodiversity in an increasingly human-dominated world. Sacred forests, i.e. natural areas protected by local people for cultural or religious regions, may be keystone structures for forest birds in the Greater Himalayas, but there is limited understanding of their use by bird communities. We surveyed birds and their habitat in and adjacent to six Tibetan sacred forests in northwest Yunnan China, a biodiversity hotspot. Our goal was to understand the ecological and conservation role of these remnant forest patches for forest birds. We found that sacred forests supported a different bird community than the surrounding matrix, and had higher bird species richness at plot, patch, and landscape scales. While we encountered a homogeneous matrix bird community outside the scared forests, the sacred forests themselves exhibited high heterogeneity, and supported at least two distinct bird communities. While bird community composition was primarily driven by the vegetation vertical structure, plots with the largest-diameter trees and native bamboo groves had the highest bird diversity, indicating that protecting forest ecosystems with old-growth characteristics is important for Himalayan forest birds. Finally, we found an increased bird use of the sacred forests and their edges during 2010, a severe drought year in Yunnan, indicating that sacred forests may serve as refuges during extreme weather years. Our results strongly indicate that sacred forests represent an important opportunity for Himalayan bird conservation because they protect a variety of habitat niches and increase bird diversity at multiple spatial scales.

Feasibility of Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy for the Study of the Temporal Distribution of Trace Elements Trapped in Snow Collected from Greater Himalayan Range

ABSTRACT The potential merit of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) has been demonstrated for detection and quantification of trace pollutants trapped in snow/ice samples. In this technique, a high-power pulsed laser beam from Nd:YAG Laser (Model no. Surelite III-10, Continuum, Santa Clara, CA, USA) is focused on the surface of the target to generate plasma. The characteristic emissions from laser-generated plasma are collected and recorded by a fiber-coupled LIBS 2000+ (Ocean Optics, Santa Clara, CA, USA) spectrometer. The fingerprint of the constituents present in the sample is obtained by analyzing the spectral lines by using OOI LIBS software. Reliable detection of several elements like Zn, Al, Mg, Fe, Ca, C, N, H, and O in snow/ice samples collected from different locations (elevation) of Manali and several snow samples collected from the Greater Himalayan region (from a cold lab in Manali, India) in different months has been demonstrated. The calibration curve approach has been adopted for the quantitative analysis of these elements like Zn, Al, Fe, and Mg. Our results clearly demonstrate that the level of contamination is higher in those samples that were collected in the month of January in comparison to those collected in February and March.