Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Research Articles

The Influence of Contamination from Concrete Materials on the Growth and Accumulation of Metals within an Invasive Weed (Salix spp.)

Urban riparian vegetation is frequently dominated by invasive weeds, whose growth is often attributed to the elevated nitrogen and phosphorous in urban waters and soils. However, less recognition is given to other urban contaminants that may influence riparian vegetation. Previous studies have indicated that the dissolution of concrete modifies water and soil geochemistry and potentially enhances the growth of invasive species. This study investigated the relationship between urban water quality and the growth of an invasive urban riparian weed, willow (Salix spp.), to examine the contribution and influence of concrete materials. The study used water from endangered upland peat wetlands within and adjoining the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, many of which are in urban catchments and suffer degradation from water pollution and invasive weeds. In this study, willow cuttings were grown in a laboratory using four water treatments: pristine (non-urban), urban, and non-urban water exposed to two different concrete materials. The urban and concrete-exposed water treatments were associated with increased plant growth measures in addition to increased concentrations of barium and strontium that bioaccumulated in plant tissue.

Busting the dust: Evaluating local vs distal sources in Quaternary sediments at Thirlmere Lakes

The Quaternary sediments preserved within the Thirlmere Lakes system, Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, Australia, are an important regional environmental record representing at least the last two interglacials. Understanding the source and evolution of these sediments, both temporally and spatially, is an essential component of the site's reconstruction. In this study, we evaluate this question using physical, mineralogical, elemental, and isotopic analytical techniques. Four distinct lake sediment facies all show bi-modal distributions of coarse sand and clay to fine silts, representing various mixtures of catchment Hawkesbury Sandstone and Ashfield Shale. Clays are predominantly kaolinite-dickite, however, the 7 Å dehydrated form of halloysite is prominent in an orange-yellow oxidised lake facies unit. The relative distribution and concentration of rare earth elements, including yttrium (REY), is heterogeneous across all the lake facies, varying between both lakes and with depth. This variability suggests a geochemical signature reflecting a combination of mixed sources and secondary mineral precipitation, driven by catchment geomorphology and specific site conditions. Slightly positive Ce anomalies in the oxidised lake facies, combined with the greater halloysite representation, represents a period of dry conditions and sub-aerial exposure. Evaluation of catchment, regional and continental REY ratios, Eu anomalies and εNd data implies a predominant internal catchment source signature, with any external contributions restricted to the local Bringelly Shale and the immediate south-eastern Australia, including the Murray River Basin. Geochemical and isotopic values for these proposed internal and external sediment sources predicts that an aeolian source from outside the immediate catchment represents a maximum of 30% of the fine-grained sediment fraction.

Preferred nesting habitat of the slow-breeding Superb Lyrebird is rare and was disproportionately impacted by Australia’s “Black Summer” megafires (2019–2020) within a World Heritage Area

Abstract Understanding nest site selection is critical to developing effective conservation management actions. The Superb Lyrebird (Menura novaehollandiae) is one of many endemic species extensively impacted by Australia’s unprecedented 2019–2020 megafires. Over a period of 5 months, an estimated 43% of the entire range of this slow-breeding species was burnt, with the biggest impact on the central subspecies M. n. novaehollandiae (55%). Four months prior to these megafires, we conducted a field study of nest site habitat selection in the Superb Lyrebird within the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area (15,400 km2): a key stronghold of the central subspecies of the Superb Lyrebird. We found that at the local scale, lyrebird nest sites were more likely to be found in habitats characterized by dense canopy trees and rich in rainforest elements such as vines and treeferns. At the landscape scale, lyrebird nests were most likely to be constructed in rainforest; this fire-sensitive habitat type made up only 1% of the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area. The probability of nest occurrence also increased with slope. We also found that >74% of all nesting habitat within the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area burned in the 2019–2020 megafires, including 80% of areas of high suitability for nesting. These results suggest that the impact of these megafires on Superb Lyrebirds may be greater than currently thought. Given the importance of rainforest as nesting habitat for the Superb Lyrebird, managers should prioritize its restoration and protect it from future fire events. More broadly, our results illustrate how large-scale catastrophic events—such as megafires—can disproportionately affect habitats critical to specific points within an organism’s life cycle.

Indigenous biocultural rights and the Blue Mountains: Local and international policy challenges

AbstractIndigenous knowledges play a critical role in addressing the environmental crisis, and the United Nations system has adopted a suite of international treaties to protect and strengthen Indigenous peoples’ rights, which are often described as biocultural rights. Because World Heritage Areas are nominated and monitored by UNESCO, an initial hypothesis in this study was that such areas would be subject to higher than normal standards in regard to Indigenous people’s biocultural rights. By reference to the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, Australia, this research examined how the international legislative framework influences conservation practices. We held semi‐structured interviews with conservation and Indigenous local experts and compared park management practices in the Area against those used in an Indigenous Protected Area. Findings align with the literature and suggest that Indigenous and scientific knowledge systems can generate new insights for the Area and other sites. Yet, Indigenous knowledges are only marginally applied in practice. Some barriers to full participation of Indigenous people are specific to the colonial history of the area. Yet, findings point to a lack of action by Australian governments and UNESCO, and that needs to be redressed. The study calls attention to the need to support and resource Indigenous people to enable collaborative partnerships to yield significant benefits for biodiversity and protection of Country.

An assessment of vegetation mapping scale for reserve management: does scale of assessment dominate assessment outcomes?

Scale is a critical factor in biodiversity assessments; assessments at inappropriate scales can compromise assessments and drive poor management outcomes. A key dataset for many conservation reserves is a map of vegetation patterns. However, the appropriateness, scale and accuracy of mapped vegetation values is rarely assessed. This study assessed vegetation mapping undertaken at differing scales using two common competing methods. The aim was to assess map utility for management planning within an important conservation reserve (Mugii Murum-ban State Conservation Area—MSCA) integral to the globally significant Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area in eastern Australia. Mapping typical of a common modelling approach failed to detect six of 21 vegetation types within MSCA. These vegetation types are part of four rare and/or endangered ecosystems. Overall accuracy (66%) was lower than sub-regional scale mapping based on air photo interpretation (77%) backed by higher levels of field data and local knowledge. Thus higher levels of spatial attribution applied to the modelling was not associated with increased map accuracy, although accuracy varied largely among vegetation types. The modelled map product has a consistent methodology across the state of New South Wales and provides important context for sub-regional mapping, but proved inappropriate for reserve management planning.

Shoot flammability patterns among plant species of the wildland–urban interface in the fire-prone Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area

Background Mitigation of wildfires at the wildland–urban interface (WUI) will be enhanced by understanding the flammability of plants growing in this zone. Aims We aimed to: (1) compare shoot flammability among wildland native, and both urban native and urban exotic ornamental plants; (2) quantify relationships between shoot traits and flammability; and (3) establish flammability scores to distinguish low- from high-flammability species. Methods Flammability and traits of field-collected shoots were measured and relationships quantified in 44 species from the Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, Australia. Key results In our study area, urban exotic plants were less flammable than wildland and urban native plants. Slow-igniting shoots had high fuel moisture and bulk density; short-burning shoots had low bulk density and volume; shoots recording low maximum temperatures had high fuel moisture, low bulk density and volume; and shoots with low biomass consumed in flames had high fuel moisture and low volume. Our novel flammability scores distinguished low-flammability (e.g. Lophostemon confertus) from high-flammability native species (e.g. Callistemon citrinus). Conclusions and implications Low-flammability plantings at the WUI should preferably use native species given potential ecological impacts of exotics. We suggest that future work should seek to identify broader suites of low-flammability native species.

Signatures of Urbanization in Temperate Highland Peat Swamps on Sandstone (THPSS) of the Blue Mountains World Heritage Area

Urban freshwater ecosystems exhibit distinct patterns of elevated major ions (calcium, potassium and bicarbonate) and metals, referred to as the ‘urban geochemical signature’. However, the implications of this urban fingerprint at the water-sediment interface within sensitive freshwater systems are not well-known. Temperate Highland Peat Swamps on Sandstone are unique freshwater wetlands found within and surrounding the high-conservation value Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area and are a listed ‘endangered ecological community’ in Australia. Water and sediment chemistry were assessed within four urban and four naturally vegetated swamp catchments, through field monitoring and novel laboratory techniques (including X-ray diffraction). Urban swamps had distinct elemental signatures compared to naturally vegetated swamps. Urban swamp water displayed increased pH, elevated ionic strength, major ions (calcium and bicarbonate) and metals (strontium, barium, manganese and iron). Urban swamp sediment had higher calcium, with calcium hydroxide detected at two urban sites. Urban development and concrete drainage infrastructure in swamp catchments modify natural hydrology and water chemistry. Findings suggest swamp sediments may act as sinks of metals and alkalinity, with urbanization remaining a potential source. However, the consequences for high-conservation value systems are not well understood. As urbanization continues to expand, this has implications for fragile freshwater environments worldwide.

<i>Corrigendum to</i>: Morphological and molecular evidence refute a broad circumscription for <i>Pultenaea glabra</i> (Fabaceae: Mirbelieae), with implications for taxonomy, biogeography, and conservation

Morphological and single-nucleotide polymorphism data support splitting <i>Pultenaea glabra</i> Benth. into eight species, including one in Victoria, and seven in eastern and northern New South Wales. Six species are newly described, five of which are, like <i>P. glabra</i>, narrow-range endemics within the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area and adjacent sandstone landforms of the Great Dividing Range. The recognition of six new species from what was broadly <i>P. glabra</i> has implications for conservation management, including for <i>P. glabra</i> itself, which has a smaller distribution and more precise habitat requirements than previously thought. One of the new species, <i>P. percussa</i>, is known by a single 1971 gathering only. The occurrence of several narrow-range Blue Mountains endemic <i>Pultenaea</i> species may be explained by the combination of edaphic diversity and topographic complexity, which could act in concert to promote divergences among small, allopatric populations. Hybrids between <i>P. glabra</i> and <i>P. flexilis</i> Sm. are documented for the first time; however, limited evidence for introgression between the two species was observed. The following new taxa are described: <i>Pultenaea aculeata</i> M.A.M.Renner, P.H.Weston & S.Clarke, <i>Pultenaea percussa</i> M.A.M.Renner & P.H.Weston, <i>Pultenaea furcata</i> M.A.M.Renner & R.L.Barrett, <i>Pultenaea mutabilis</i> M.A.M.Renner & P.H.Weston, <i>Pultenaea mutabilis</i> var. <i>angusta</i> M.A.M.Renner, P.H.Weston, & S.Clarke, <i>Pultenaea praecipua</i> M.A.M.Renner & P.H.Weston, <i>Pultenaea praecipua</i> subsp. <i>temperata</i> M.A.M.Renner & R.L.Barrett, and <i>Pultenaea tenebrosa</i> M.A.M.Renner, P.H.Weston & S.Clarke. Lectotypes are designated for <i>Pultenaea villosa</i> var. <i>glabrescens</i> Benth. and <i>Pultenaea weindorferi</i> Reader.

Consequences of the Australian 2019/20 wildfires for sites important for biodiversity and other world heritage values

ABSTRACT The 2019/20 wildfire season was devastating for Australia’s biodiversity and unprecedented in its extent and severity, yet the consequences for sites important for biodiversity and other world heritage values remain unknown. Here, we summarise the 2019/20 wildfire impacts on key sites set aside for, or identified as being important for, biodiversity, with specific reference to nationally designated protected areas, World Heritage Listings, and Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs). We also explore patterns between burn extent or severity, and underlying landscape characteristics. Over seven months, approximately 10 million hectares (ha) of native vegetation burned. Of these burned landscapes, ~3.2 million ha (41%) were within the Australian protected area estate (n = 815 and impacted >0.1% of each protected area). Six Australian World Heritage Listings were impacted by the 2019/20 wildfires, with the largest impact being in the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area (680,000 ha or 67% was affected by the fires). The 2019/20 fires impacted over 2 million ha across 69 KBAs. Of these, 18 KBAs had >15% of their area burned. Critically, for the management of intact and recovering forests, we show that the degree of forest integrity and ecosystem intactness affected fire severity: more degraded forests and ecosystems experienced higher severity burns in the protected area estate and KBAs. Recovery for many of these places will require targeted effort and resources to help reduce the likelihood of future megafires, as well as increased resilience in the face of other catastrophic environmental events.

One year on: rapid assessment of fauna and red fox diet after the 2019–20 mega-fires in the Blue Mountains, New South Wales

ABSTRACT Australia’s 2019–20 mega-fires burnt 79% of the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, prompting an urgent need for rapid on-ground post-fire assessments of flora and fauna to aid in post-fire recovery. This project aimed to determine spatial patterns in populations and assemblages of vertebrates, vertebrate temporal activity, and the diet of the invasive Red Fox Vulpes vulpes, across burnt and unburnt sites. Using remote camera traps we surveyed 12 unburnt and 10 burnt sites approximately 12 months after the fires. We detected 41 species (11 mammals, 28 birds and 2 reptiles), with different species composition, but similar vertebrate species richness across both unburnt and burnt sites. The relative abundance of the Eastern Grey Kangaroo Macropus giganteus, Common Wombat Vombatus ursinus and Australian Magpie Gymnorhina tibicen was higher in burnt sites, while small mammals (< 500 g) had higher relative abundance at unburnt sites. There was no difference in the relative abundance of the Superb Lyrebird Menura novaehollandiae across burnt and unburnt sites, and although 11 species of bird were only detected at unburnt sites, the numbers were too low for reliable estimates of differences. Red Fox scat analysis (n=23) revealed that invertebrates and plant material were the dominant prey items in both burnt and unburnt sites, but medium-sized mammals increased in Red Fox diets in burnt sites, and reptiles were consumed disproportionately more by Red Foxes in burnt compared to unburnt sites. Although the short-term nature of this study and low scat sample size limited detailed insights, our rapid survey was an effective tool to gain preliminary data on species responses to the 2019–20 megafires in the Blue Mountains and contribute to a baseline for understanding species recovery.

Morphological and molecular evidence refute a broad circumscription for

Morphological and single-nucleotide polymorphism data support splitting Pultenaea glabra Benth. into eight species, including one in Victoria, and seven in eastern and northern New South Wales. Six species are newly described, five of which are, like P. glabra, narrow-range endemics within the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area and adjacent sandstone landforms of the Great Dividing Range. The recognition of six new species from what was broadly P. glabra has implications for conservation management, including for P. glabra itself, which has a smaller distribution and more precise habitat requirements than previously thought. One of the new species, P. percussa, is known by a single 1971 gathering only. The occurrence of several narrow-range Blue Mountains endemic Pultenaea species may be explained by the combination of edaphic diversity and topographic complexity, which could act in concert to promote divergences among small, allopatric populations. Hybrids between P. glabra and P. flexilis Sm. are documented for the first time; however, limited evidence for introgression between the two species was observed. The following new taxa are described: Pultenaea aculeata M.A.M.Renner, P.H.Weston & S.Clarke, Pultenaea percussa M.A.M.Renner & P.H.Weston, Pultenaea furcata M.A.M.Renner & R.L.Barrett, Pultenaea mutabilis M.A.M.Renner & P.H.Weston, Pultenaea mutabilis var. angusta M.A.M.Renner, P.H.Weston, & S.Clarke, Pultenaea praecipua M.A.M.Renner & P.H.Weston, Pultenaea praecipua subsp. temperata M.A.M.Renner & R.L.Barrett, and Pultenaea tenebrosa M.A.M.Renner, P.H.Weston & S.Clarke. Lectotypes are designated for Pultenaea villosa var. glabrescens Benth. and Pultenaea weindorferi Reader.

Impact of the 2019–20 drought, heatwaves and mega-fires on Greater Gliders (Petauroides volans) in the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, New South Wales

ABSTRACT We have investigated the impact of the unprecedented drought, heatwaves and fires of 2019–20 on a threatened arboreal marsupial, the Greater Glider (Petauroides volans), in the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, an area of over one million hectares. The study involved multiple post-fire surveys in 2020 and 2021 of 16 transects (eight burnt and eight unburnt) for which we had pre-2019 data on Greater Glider numbers. We were unable to find any gliders on two transects burnt at high to extreme severity (100% of eucalypt foliage killed in the canopy and understorey) but Greater Gliders were still present on all six transects burnt at low to moderate severity (44–77% of eucalypt foliage killed), although in significantly lower numbers (mean decline of 43% per transect). Greater Gliders feed on eucalypt leaves and their post-fire survival appears to be dependent on the presence of eucalypt trees with abundant unburnt foliage, which were absent from the more severely burnt transects. Even 17 months after the fires, Greater Gliders were still dependent on these trees, which constituted 36% of trees on low-moderate burnt transects but 77% of trees in which gliders were seen. Gliders were seen feeding on post-fire epicormic regrowth but generally avoided trees with mainly epicormic foliage, possibly because they provided insufficient protection from predators. Greater Gliders were also seriously impacted by the preceding drought and heatwaves, with patchy but significant declines on the eight unburnt transects (mean decline of 34% per transect). We measured the likely impact of the fires on Greater Glider habitat across the World Heritage Area by determining fire severity at a total of 773 precisely located points at which the species had been recorded. An extraordinary 84% of their known sites had been burnt, with 34% burnt at high-extreme severity, 50% burnt at low-moderate severity and only 16% unburnt. Combining these figures with the Greater Glider declines recorded on our transects, we estimate that the Greater Glider population of the World Heritage Area has been reduced by 61% by the extreme events of 2019–20. This is a broad extrapolation from a limited number of sites but it indicates the massive scale of the likely impacts.

Forest avifauna exhibit enduring responses to historical high-severity wildfires

Forest fire size, frequency and severity are increasing worldwide, with corresponding reductions in long-unburnt habitat and greater modification of forest structure over wider areas. Understanding the implications for animals is imperative in optimizing management for species persistence and overall biodiversity. We investigated how avian responses to historical high-severity fire differ in forests at short (five years) and mid-range (16 years) time since fire, including whether increased time since fire mitigates any negative responses to high-severity fire. Sites were established in fire-prone dry forests of the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, Australia. A Bayesian latent variable analysis of bird data obtained from acoustic recordings was used to estimate the occurrence of 74 species in relation to time since fire (short, mid-range), the spatial extent of historical high-severity fire (limited, extensive), and their interaction. Time since fire influenced the number of species present, but only where high-severity fire had been extensive. Here, the lowest and highest number of species in the study occurred where time since fire was short and mid-range, respectively. At least ten species responded either positively or negatively to high-severity fire, but for nine of these species the response did not change with time since fire, potentially implicating persistent effects of such fires on habitat. Six other species were unlikely to occur at short time since fire, requiring habitat at mid-range time since fire. This finding suggests that these species would benefit from strategic retention of forest with longer fire-ages under increased fire activity associated with climate change.

Separating natural and cultural heritage: an outdated approach?

ABSTRACT This paper considers a problematic dynamic in the protection of natural World Heritage properties for sites that also possess significant cultural assets, but that fall short of the World Heritage designation ‘outstanding universal value’ standard for cultural significance. The destruction of cultural heritage places in natural settings is a global concern and we use an Australian case study to illustrate the argument that cultural assets located within natural properties should be given an allied protection status. We argue that protection problems arise, represented by a nature/culture binary trope, despite significant progress in using more holistic approaches, as exemplified by cultural landscapes. To demonstrate our argument, we consider controversy surrounding a development proposal within the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area (GBMWHA), located in the state of New South Wales, Australia. We find that a development proposal to raise a storage dam wall triggers significant problems for protecting both natural and cultural heritage features across the GBMWHA landscape and, in this context, we recommend a reconsideration of the rigid natural/cultural heritage binary of World Heritage classifications.

Extent and effect of the 2019-20 Australian bushfires on upland peat swamps in the Blue Mountains, NSW

The devastating bushfires of the 2019–20 summer are arguably the most costly natural disaster in Australian recorded history. What is little known is that these fires severely affected the temperate highland peat swamps on sandstone (THPSS), a form of upland wetland that occurs in the water supply catchments of Sydney in the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area and National Park. During the fires, 59% of THPSS was burnt and 72% of those by a high severity burn. Upland swamps at Newnes were the most affected, with 96% of swamps burnt and 84% of these experiencing a very high burn severity. We present an analysis of the spatial extent and severity of the bushfire on the THPSS and discuss some of the likely consequences on their geomorphological, hydrological and ecological structure, function and recovery potential.

Comparing interglacials in eastern Australia: A multi-proxy investigation of a new sedimentary record

The widespread formation of organic rich sediments in south-east Australia during the Holocene (Marine Isotope Stage [MIS] 1) reflects the return of wetter and warmer climates following the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Yet, little is known about whether a similar event occurred in the region during the previous interglacial (MIS 5e). A 6.8 m sediment core (#LC2) from the now ephemeral Lake Couridjah, Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, Australia, provides insight into this question. Organic rich sediments associated with both MIS 1 and 5e are identified using 14C and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating techniques. Also apparent are less organic sedimentary units representing MIS 6, 5d and 2 and a large depositional hiatus. Sediment δ13C values (−34 to −26‰) suggests that C3 vegetation dominates the organic matter source through the entire sequence. The pollen record highlights the prevalence of sclerophyll trees and shrubs, with local hydrological changes driving variations in the abundance of aquatic and lake-margin species. The upper Holocene sediment (0–1.7 m) is rich in organic matter, including high concentrations of total organic carbon (TOC; 20–40%), fine charcoal and macrophyte remains. These sediments are also characterised by a large proportion of epiphytic diatoms and a substantial biogenic component (chironomids and midges). These attributes, combined with low δ13C and δ15N values, and C:N ratios of approximately 20, indicate a stable peat system in a swamp like setting, under the modern/Holocene climate. In comparison, the lower organic rich unit (MIS 5e-d) has less TOC (5–10%), is relatively higher in δ13C and δ15N, and is devoid of macrophyte remains and biogenic material. Characterisation of the organic matter pool using 13C-NMR spectroscopy identified a strong decomposition signal in the MIS 5e organic sediments relative to MIS 1. Thus the observed shifts in δ13C, δ15N and C:N data between the two periods reflects changes in the organic matter pool, driven by decompositional processes, rather than environmental conditions. Despite this, high proportions of aquatic pollen taxa and planktonic diatoms in the MIS 5e–d deposits, and their absence in the Holocene indicates that last interglacial Lake Couridjah was deeper and, or, had more permanent water, than the current one.

Species diversity in bee flies and hover flies (Diptera: Bombyliidae and Syrphidae) in the horticultural environments of the Blue Mountains, Australia

AbstractFlies (Diptera) are one of the most important groups of insect pollinators. Families Bombyliidae (bee flies) and Syrphidae (hover flies) are globally distributed with aproximately 5000 and 6200 described species, respectively. Many studies have attempted to quantify Syrphidae diversity in natural and agricultural environments, due to their perceived value as pollinators, decomposers of organic waste and agents of pest control. However, to date, there have been only two studies of Syrphidae communities in Australia, both of which focused on arable crops. Meanwhile, there have been very few studies of Bombyliidae diversity and none in Australia, despite the fact that bombyliid diversity can be high, far exceeding that of Syrphidae in some ecosystems. We aimed to learn more about Australia's anthophilous Diptera and their diversity in agricultural and native ecosystems. Using a combination of pan trapping and observation plot surveys, we assessed bombyliid and syrphid diversity at Bilpin, New South Wales, Australia, an important horticultural area within the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area. Five syrphid species made up 62% of all individuals collected, while 22 species made up the remaining 32%, including nine species of Bombyliidae. The hover fly Melangyna viridiceps alone accounted for a third of all captured specimens. The larvae of the five most commonly encountered species are all aphidophagous. As such, aphidophagous species appear to be numerically dominant, and this is consistent with previous studies in south‐east Australian agroecosystems. M. viridiceps and Triglyphus fulvicornis were frequent visitors to flowering fruit trees and may therefore contribute to the pollination of these crops. However, most visited flowers were introduced weeds or escaped crop plants. The maintenance of diverse floral resources, which may include weeds, is important for sustaining populations of aphidophagous Syrphidae, which may contribute to both pollination and pest control. As a consequence, we recommend a more tolerant approach to weed management in orchards to better facilitate the ecosystem services provided by Diptera.

The intersection of diversity metrics and spatial mapping: a case study of regional vegetation patterns for a complex community

We evaluate the contribution of small-scale floristic diversity to regional vegetation patterns, if current vegetation classification methods adequately account for small-scale floristic diversity and the potential role of diversity metrics in contributing to improved classification and mapping of plant community patterns. Upland swamps in the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, Australia, were used as a case study for this evaluation. Eight hundred and eleven survey plots using two contrasting survey designs were used to generate diversity metrics (; ; ?; ; multivariate dispersion) and these were intersected with spatial mapping across 69 swamps. A novel classification informed by small-scale floristic diversity was also implemented. Diversity patterns at the regional scale were significantly affected by survey design (both and overestimated by a survey design using large plots, but , ? and multivariate dispersion not significantly different among plot designs). Secondly, the novel classification revealed that the majority of assemblages present were previously unreported. Thirdly, floristic assemblages previously mapped only in discrete parts of the region were found to be widespread. A poor correlation exists between current standard classification approaches and a classification informed by small-scale floristic diversity. Thus, recommended and implemented standards for survey and classification in many jurisdictions globally are inadequate for revealing diversity patterns and mapping communities with complex small-scale diversity patterns. Communities of this type are widespread globally. Our study demonstrates that the intersection of advanced diversity metrics and spatial mapping, using small-scale survey data, provides critical insights into regional vegetation patterns that may otherwise remain obscure.

Nature tourism trends in Australia with reference to the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area

ABSTRACTNature-based tourism has been viewed as a large and growing segment of the tourism market. Advocates of nature-based tourism argue its potential to generate income for biodiversity conservation and local economic benefit, while detractors fear a risk of “loving our parks to death”. Some recent studies have suggested that nature-based tourism may be declining on a per capita basis, especially in economically developed countries. Others have detected no such trend. Nature-based tourism is a key industry within Australia, based strongly on its unique scenery and biodiversity. We compared nature-based visitation and population growth during 1998–2012 for Australia overall and specifically for the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area which is adjacent to the country's largest conurbation of Greater Sydney. We found substantial declines in domestic per capita visitation, both nationally and regionally. Because visitation provides the “political capital” for parks to survive, strategies to encourage visitation should be a target for land managers. Since children foster environmentally responsible behaviour in adults, they should be part of the focus for developing diverse experiences that encourage park visitation.

A Switch in Keystone Seed-Dispersing Ant Genera between Two Elevations for a Myrmecochorous Plant, Acacia terminalis

The dispersal capacity of plant species that rely on animals to disperse their seeds (biotic dispersal) can alter with changes to the populations of their keystone dispersal vectors. Knowledge on how biotic dispersal systems vary across landscapes allows better understanding of factors driving plant persistence. Myrmecochory, seed dispersal by ants, is a common method of biotic dispersal for many plant species throughout the world. We tested if the seed dispersal system of Acacia terminalis (Fabaceae), a known myrmecochore, differed between two elevations in the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, in southeastern Australia. We compared ant assemblages, seed removal rates of ants and other vertebrates (bird and mammal) and the dominant seed-dispersing ant genera. At low elevations (c. 200 m a.s.l) seed removal was predominantly by ants, however, at high elevation sites (c. 700 m a.s.l) vertebrate seed dispersers or seed predators were present, removing over 60% of seeds from experimental depots when ants were excluded. We found a switch in the keystone seed-dispersing ant genera from Rhytidoponera at low elevations sites to Aphaenogaster at high elevation sites. This resulted in more seeds being removed faster at low elevation sites compared to high elevation sites, however long-term seed removal rates were equal between elevations. Differences in the keystone seed removalist, and the addition of an alternate dispersal vector or seed predator at high elevations, will result in different dispersal and establishment patterns for A. terminalis at different elevations. These differences in dispersal concur with other global studies that report myrmecochorous dispersal systems alter with elevation.