Great Khans Research Articles

홍무 3년(1370) ‘平定沙漠’ 詔書의 頒布와 詔書의 ‘언어’

In the sixth lunar month of 1370, Ming Taizu 太祖 (Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋) received General Li Wenzhong’s 李文忠 memorial which reported on the death of Toghon Temür, Great Khan of the Great Yuan, in the fourth month and the capture of the Great Khan’s grandson Maidaribala on the 16th day of the fifth month in Yingchang 應昌.
 According to the Ming Veritable Records 明實錄, it was on the 20th day of the sixth month that Ming Taizu mentioned these significant events in his imperial proclamation 詔書 to officialize the ending of the Great Yuan. By comparing different versions of the proclamation included in historical sources, this paper shows that the texts in the Ming Veritable Records were doctored by the compilers. They pushed the date of the proclamation from the original 15th day to the 20th day of the same month. In addition, they edited the original contents to reflect the circumstances of the 20th day.
 Following the proclamation in question, presumably on the 20th day, Ming Taizu issued another imperial proclamation bearing the same news. It was addressed to the people of the Great Yuan such as Mongol princes and nobles, and Jurchen chieftains who had not yet submitted to the Ming rule. In the received Ming Veritable Records, this proclamation was written in classical Chinese following the conventions of recording the Chinese imperial documents. This paper argues, however, that another significant problem of the Ming Veritable Records is hidden here: The compilers rewrote the proclamation to look like a usual Chinese imperial document. The original text of this proclamation was not written in classical Chinese, but in the colloquial language following the conventions of the Yuan imperial edicts which employed a unique style to translate word for word what the Mongolian Great Khans spoke. The colloquial style and words of the proclamation were a practical and effective method to persuade its audiences to submit to the new Ming ruler.

Franciscan Minorite Monks in China from the “Great Religious Incident” to the Cultural Revolution

The article is an attempt to systematize the preaching of the Franciscan order in China, starting with the Papal embassies to the Great Khans who conquered the Middle Empire and founded the Yuan dynasty until the end of the 20th century. The author groups the information into several major periods, suggesting a five-stage periodization of the Franciscan presence in the Far East. A change in the preaching paradigm is noted during the 700 centuries of the fickle Minorites’ presence in China. While the first reconnaissance missions, achieving modest success in preaching to non-Chinese subjects of the Mongol emperors, were mainly diplomatic in nature, in modern times the mission, enjoying the support of the Spanish Padroado system, is purposefully concentrated on preaching work, especially among the poor segments of the population. The culmination of all European Catholic missionary enterprise in China, the famous ‘Rites Controversy’, which split the Christian orders in the Celestial Empire, is examined in connection with the role played by the representatives of the Franciscan Order in this dramatic conflict. The author concludes that the Controversy hit, as a result, all Chinese Catholic missions – the Franciscans no less than their main opponents, the Jesuits, eventually leading to persecution, repression and expulsion of missionaries. Attempts of new penetration of Catholic Christianity into the PRC are resumed only after the end of the Cultural Revolution in the second half of the 20th century. The article is a continuation of the piece by the same author, focusing on theoretical foundations of the Franciscan proselytization, published earlier.

Confronting the Foreigner: Common Policies of Rashid al-Din and Liu Bingzhong on Mongol Rule in Iran and China

AbstractThis article discusses the career of three historical figures who had a position of authority in the courts of the Ilkhans and the Great Khans of the Mongol Empire in China: Rashid al-Din Tabib (d. 1318), the Persian statesman and historian; Liu Bingzhong (d. 1274), Qubilai Khan's (r. 1260-94) Chinese counsellor; and Bolad Aqa (d. 1313), the famed Mongol tribesman. This study raises the question of whether Rashid al-Din's policies, when he was in office as the vizier of Ghazan Khan (r. 1295-1304), were modelled in some respects on the approach of the Chinese nobles—Liu in particular—to the Mongols during the early stages of the Mongol rule over China. In addition, taking into account Bolad's noticeable presence in the courts of the Mongols in Ilkhanid Iran and Yuan China, it seeks to shed light on his role as an intermediary and a possible conduit for Chinese political thoughts to reach Rashid al-Din.

Денежное обращение Булгарского улуса во второй половине XIV в.

Research objectives: To reveal the radical change in money circulation in the second half of the fourteenth century, using the example of the coin hoards of the Bulgar ulus and the 199 excavation of the Bolgar settlement. Research materials: These include the hoards of the Bolgar settlement, the Karatunsky hoard, and counter-minted coins from the 199 excavation of the Bolgar settlement. Results and novelty of the research: The city of Bolgar began to resume minting coins after it was annexed to the ulus of Jochi. The earliest such coins were minted on behalf of the Caliph an-Nasir and the Great Khans, Möngke and Ariq Böke. After the establishment of the Golden Horde, Bolgar minted coins on behalf of Mengu-Timur and subsequent rulers, as well as many anonymous and unepigraphic coins that have been found deposited in hoards. Hoards are an indicator of changes in monetary circulation in the ulus and they increased significantly during the reign of Toqtamish Khan. Counter-minted and trimmed coins appeared due to a shortage of coins; this is a characteristic feature of the monetary circulation of the Bulgar ulus.

From Papal Envoys to Martyrs of the Faith: An Attempt in Generalization of Franciscan preaching in China in the 13th– 18th Centuries

The article is an attempt to systematize the preaching of the Franciscan order in China, starting with the papal embassies to the Great Khans who conquered the Middle Empire and founded the Yuan dynasty until the end of the 20th century. The author groups the information into several major periods, suggesting a five-stage periodization of the Franciscan presence in the Far East. A change in the preaching paradigm is noted during the 700 centuries of the fickle Minorites’ presence in China. While the first reconnaissance missions, achieving modest success in preaching to non-Chinese subjects of the Mongol emperors, were mainly diplomatic in nature, in modern times the mission, enjoying the support of the Spanish Padroado system, is purposefully concentrated on preaching work, especially among the poor segments of the population. Since the 16th century begins a change in the entire logistic paradigm of the Far Eastern missionary work. If in the Middle Ages the Pope had enough to send several barefoot Franciscans to the Tatars, then in modern times the church is already forced to reckon with the countries that divided the world, initiating the Age of Exploration, first of all, with Spain and Portugal, the two then superpowers, each of which supported their own preachers, competing for influence in India, China and Japan and giving the task of preaching Christianity an additional political dimension, laden with rivalry and intrigue. The article is a continuation of the piece by the same author, focusing on theoretical foundations of the Franciscan proselytization, published earlier [Dubrovskaya, 2020(1)].

In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia. By David M. Robinson (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2020) 372 pp. $99.99

<i>In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia</i>. By David M. Robinson (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2020) 372 pp. $99.99

Монгольский хаган как сын Бога

Extensive Mongol conquests in the 13th century led to a clash of different cultures and necessitated the translation of concepts from one culture to another. One of them discussed in this article was the concept of Son of God, which most likely goes back to the Chinese Son of Heaven. The Mongols practically did not use Chinese political and philosophical terminology, but it seems to have existed in their Empire thanks to Kitan advisers along with the native steppe notions. In communications with Christians, the Mongols used the phrase Son of God in relation to their khagans, especially Genghis Khan, which, of course, was perceived by Christians very negatively, since in their culture this epithet could only belong to Jesus Christ. The article attempts to trace the use of this concept in Mongolian diplomacy in the middle of the XIII century — the period of the highest power of the Mongol Empire. The author concludes that, despite the legend of the heavenly origin of their ancestors, neither Genghis Khan nor the other great khans had this title officially. It appears sporadically in diplomatic correspondence and chronicles, and only in late medieval Mongol historiography does it become a permanent epithet of deified Genghis Khan.

Reflection of Mongolian Imperial Ideas in the Medieval Armenian Sources

The article analyzes the information from Armenian sources of the 13th–14th centuries about the Mongolian imperial ideology refracted through the prism of the Christian worldview. In addition to historical works, the study looks at the colophons of manuscripts and some relevant poetic literary works. Armenian authors retell the legend that the Lord himself gave the whole world to Genghis Khan, and that the code of the Mongolian Imperial legislation – the Great Yasa – also has a heavenly origin. Apparently, these legends, which were interspersed with echoes of some real events from the early Mongolian history, were widely known among the multi-ethnic elite of the Hulaguid State. The Mongol invaders were perceived by the Armenians as “God’s punishment” for sins, which is proves to be quite a representative view at the Mongols in monotheistic cultures; in fact, this was an important factor legitimizing the Mongolian power. Circulating rumors about some Khan’s intention to be baptized gave additional weight to the legitimacy of the Mongol rule. The analyzed sources greatly vary in determining the extent of Mongolian aggression. Some of them give rather specific description of Mongolian military campaigns and list the countries and historic regions they conquered, ahile some speak about the nomads’ conquest of “the whole world”. Actually, the limits of “the whole world” in these works often coincide with the limits of Armenian cultural contacts and exclude countries that did not obey to the Mongols, despite the authors’ full awareness of the Mongols’ attempts to conquer them. Assessments of the Mongolian rulers were determined, first of all, by their attitude to Christians, while even the Ilkhans who professed Islam received positive reviews. Armenian authors clearly tried to avoid critical statements about not only Hulagu and his descendants, but also about the great Khans, and in this they are very close to the positions of their Georgian, Syrian, and Russian contemporaries. The author argues that in a number of cases Armenian historians have provided fairly accurate information about the fundamental principles of the Mongolian Empire, including its ideological foundations. Therefore, their information is very useful for the reconstruction of the formation of Mongolian imperial ideology in the 13th century.

元 후기 『經世大典』의 편찬과 六典體制

The Ching-shih ta-tien(經世大典) is the first official compilation on the legislations and precedents of the civil administration, compiled during the reign of Tuγ Temur in the late Yuan. Shortly after the beginning of his reign, he founded the Academy of K’uei-chang-ko and compiled the Ching-shih ta-tien as a part of the establishment of legitimacy. One of the notable points on the compilation is that the organization was distinct from the official compilation on the legislations existed before and was consisted of the six code style. In the Ching-shih ta-tien is composed of the four chapters on instructions and achievements of the Great Khans of the Mongol and the six chapters on the contents managed by bureaucrats and officials.The latter mainly describes the Six Board which took charge of the practical administration.Soon after publishing, the six code style also appeared as the construction of Yuan Dian Zhang published in the local society of the Yuan, and it became one of basic formats of the East Asian code. As six boards dealt with the practical administration for management of the Empire, it was under supervision of the chancellor of the Yuan.This shows that the political situation during the late Yuan, which the government was managed with a prime minister as the central figure. Especially, the authority of Tuγ Temur passed to an influential courtier El Temur who eliminated political opponents for Tuγ Temur and let him reign twice. In this situtiaon, TuγTemur definitized his authority over chancellor, El Temur., through placing the great Khans’ achievements over the contents of the six codes generalized by the chancellor in the Ching-shih ta-tien.

The Postal Roads of the Great Khans in Central Asia under the Mongol-Yuan Empire

The Postal Roads of the Great Khans in Central Asia under the Mongol-Yuan Empire

Towards an Ontology of Fetishes

Alphonso Lingis (1933– ) is an American continental philosopher and translator who is currently Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at Pennsylvania State University.1 Associated with the phenomenology, existentialism, and the ethical philosophy of Emmanuel Levinas and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Lingis’s philosophical influences also encompass the literary works of Pierre Klossowski and Yukio Mishima, Michel Tournier, and the postpsychoanalytic theory of Jean-Francois Lyotard, Jacques Lacan, Gilles Deleuze, and Felix Guattari. Lingis’s philosophical concerns are thus similar to those of major continental philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Nietzsche, Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, and Michel Foucault, and with whom he often engages in sustained dialogues on everything from sensuality and anthropology to travelogue, the human body, inanimate objects, the elements, and perception.

Riza Shah, the fall of Sardar Asad, and the “Bakhtiyari plot”

Jafar Quli Khan Sardar Asad Bakhtiyari was a key supporter of Riza Khan/Shah and a loyal official in the new post-1921 regime for more than a decade, his occupation of a succession of high government appointments culminating in the post of minister of war between 1927 and 1933. Having attached himself decisively to Riza Khan in the early 1920s, thereby ensuring his own personal ascendancy over the other great khans of the Bakhtiyari, Sardar Asad becamne a loyal defender of the new order and was instrumental in ensuring the political quiescence of the Bakhtiyari and in extending state power throughout south-central Iran. Yet, at the end of 1933 he was arrested along with a large number of other Bakhtiyari khans and implicated in a plot against the shah. He died in prison the following March, having been secretly murdered. In the circumstances surrounding Sardar Asad's disgrace and murder may be discerned certain of the preoccupations, even obsessions, gripping the shah as his new regime entered its second decade. These included his determination to destroy the remaining tribal leaderships and enforce nomadic settlement; his anxiety for his own safety and the security of the new dynasty; his growing suspicions of his own key supporters and his increasing resorting to the methods of political terror with the resulting general demoralization of the wider nationalist elite; his burgeoning mania for land acquisition sparked by the land legislation of 1928; his frustration at his failure to establish fuller control over Iran's oil resources; and his succumbing to a pervasive fear of foreign, especially British, interference coupled with a morbid anxiety about the image Iran presented to the West.

The Mongolian Great Khans in Mongolian Mythology and Folklore

For a study of the mythological and religious role of historical persons of the Mongolian ethnic groups a large amount of different sources can be utilised. In addition to the data in contemporary and earlier historical sources, primarily in the chronicles, a considerable quantity of folklore material of different genres contains information on this topic. Historical persons appear in different mythological and ritual roles in the folk religion and the folk belief system. In the toponymic myths and legends (Khal. domog) usually the most venerated historical heroes of a region are connected to a certain place name, and in the aetiological myths they act as the creators of certain customs. The present article surveys only the mythological and religious role of the Mongolian great khans. It offers a typology of the main motives connected to the above-mentioned aspects of the worship of a historical person.

The Mongolian great khans in Mongolian mythology and folklore

For a study of the mythological and religious role of historical persons of the Mongolian ethnic groups a large amount of different sources can be utilised. In addition to the data in contemporary and earlier historical sources, primarily in the chronicles, a considerable quantity of folklore material of different genres contains information on this topic. Historical persons appear in different mythological and ritual roles in the folk religion and the folk belief system. In the toponymic myths and legends (Khal. domog) usually the most venerated historical heroes of a region are connected to a certain place name, and in the aetiological myths they act as the creators of certain customs. The present article surveys only the mythological and religious role of the Mongolian great khans. It offers a typology of the main motives connected to the above-mentioned aspects of the worship of a historical person.

The Letters of Eljigidei, Hülegü, and Abaqa: Mongol Overtures or Christian Ventriloquism?

AbstractThis paper deals with the Great Khans and Ilkhans’ letters, and with the question of their authenticity. Generally, these letters were written in Mongolian, but very few of the original documents have come down to us. The author analyses three letters sent by the Mongols to the Latin West. This paper points out the leading role of the Eastern Christians in the translation of the letters, and their hope for an alliance between the Ilkhans and the Latin West. In these letters the Mongols emphasised the protection afforded to the Christians, the legend of Prester John and the possibility of returning Jerusalem to the Franks. But the offer of collaboration went unheeded.

The Yak, the Bear and the Dragon: Uneasy Bedfellows. A Cautionary Tale of Russian and Chinese Influences on Mongolian History

In the early thirteenth century Chinggis Khan used Central Asia and North China and then throughout the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries his successors used China, Eastern Europe, the Near East, even Vietnam, Burma and Korea, as battlegrounds for their campaigns of conquest. Little, perhaps, did the Mongol Great Khans think that some six or seven centuries later their homeland would itself be a battleground, fought over politically if not actually militarily by the empires of Russia and China and by the Communist powers which succeeded those two empires.

The Medieval Expansion of Europe.

Between the year 1000 and the middle of the 14th century a remarkable series of events unfolded as Europeans made contact with a substantial part of the inhabited world, much of it never previously known to or suspected by them. Leif Ericsson and other Vikings from Greenland discovered North America; European crusading armies established themselves in Syria and Palestine; Marco Polo and other Italian merchants, and missionaries such as John of Monte Corvino penetrated the dominions of the Mongol great Khans as far as China; the Vivaldi brothers sought to open a sea route to India; Jaime Ferrer was lured by dreams of locating the source of West African gold; and the Atlantic island groups, the canaries, Madeira, and the Azores, were all discovered. This is the second edition of this text and includes a new Foreword and Conclusion, as well as a bibliographical essay, surveying recent work in what is becoming a thriving area of research.

Papal Envoys to the Great Khans

Papal Envoys to the Great Khans

Papal Envoys to the Great Khans

Papal Envoys to the Great Khans

Art. XII.—The Northern Frontagers of China. Part VII. The Shato Turks

De Mailla tells us that the Shato were descended from the horde Chu yué of the Western Tu kiu (Chu yué was the family name of its chiefs, vide infra), who had settled to the south of the mountain Kin po shan, and to the east of the lake Pu lei hai (i.e. the Kukunor), and near the stream called Shato, whence they derived their name (op. cit. vol. vi. p. 378). Hyacinthe tells us they lived south of Kara Mannai Ola, in Khur-Kara-Ussu (Borgs, Hyacinthe, p. 277). He derives their name from the Mongol word Shato, meaning a leader (id.). De Guignes tells us the Chu yué Turks lived in the neighbourhood of lake Lop, near which was a great desert which the Turks called Shato, whence these Turks derived their name (cf. Hist. des Huns, vol. ii. p. 37). Like Klaproth, De Guignes identifies them with the Ta ghaz ghaz, a view to which I shall revert in a future paper on the Uighurs. De Guignes tell us the Shato horde was subject to the Great Khans of the Western Turks, and assisted them in their various expeditions.