Forest Grazing Research Articles

Vegetation Response to Climate Change and Human Impacts in the Usambara Mountains

East and West Usambara Mountain blocks are unique based on three characteristics. Firstly, they are connected blocks; secondly, they have an oceanic-influenced climate; and thirdly, the rain seasons are not easily discernible due to their close proximity to the Indian Ocean and Equator. Sediment cores were collected from peat bogs in Derema (DRM) and Mbomole (MBML) in East Usambara and from Madumu (DUMU) in West Usambara. The multiproxy record provides an understanding on climate and vegetation changes during the last 5000 years. DRM and MBML cores result in radiocarbon ages and age-depth curve which showed hiatus at 20 cm and 61 cm and huge inversion for DUMU core at 57 cm. Period 5000–4000 14C yr BP for DUMU core revealed increased Montane forest indicative of relatively moist conditions. Periods 3000–2000 and 2000–1000 14C yr BP, DUMU core demonstrated increased submontane and lowland forests. Period 1000–200 14C yr BP, DUMU core signified increased coprophilous fungi while DRM and MBML cores signified fluctuating herbaceous pollen spectra (wet-dry episodes). Period 200 14C yr BP to present, all cores demonstrated stable recovery of forest types especially dominance of submontane forests. Abundant coprophilous fungi indicated increased human impacts including forest fires, cultivation, and grazing.

The Changing Face of Cattle Raising and Forest Grazing in the Bhutan Himalaya

Household surveys were conducted in 2 representative rural settlements in central and western Bhutan to evaluate differences in cattle raising practices and seasonal variation in the physical characteristics of cattle, and to project future trends in herd management and forest grazing. Results indicated that cattle owners' perceptions, aptitudes, and attitudes are changing and that rural interventions need to take these changes into account. The proportion of households without cultivated pasture was greater in the central Bhutan study village. The settlements also differed in cattle owners' opinions on forest selection and grazing pressure. The only outstanding similarity between settlements was the preference for crossbred cattle, revealing a strong orientation toward small but productive dairy herds and suggesting that a future reduction in forest grazing was likely. Although both settlements rely on forest grazing, there are considerable differences in cattle production practices and type of cattle reared, primarily driven by access to market, topography, and domestic forage resources. Our results suggest that management decisions should be based on site-specific information rather than generic guidelines.

Nutritive value of winter-collected annual twigs of main European woody species, mistletoe and ivy and its possible consequences for winter foddering of livestock in prehistory

In Central Europe, forest grazing was probably the main way of providing winter feeding for livestock in prehistory; the main components of this diet most likely included annual twigs of woody species ( Acer platanoides, Betula pendula, Carpinus betulus, Corylus avellana, Fagus sylvatica, Fraxinus excelsior, Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris, Populus tremula, Quercus robur, Salix caprea, Tilia cordata and Ulmus glabra), Hedera helix, Viscum album and senescent grassland biomass; however, their nutritive value has never been compared. Biomass samples were collected in the Czech Republic in February 2013 and analysed for concentration of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, fibre and lignin. With the help of a recent analogy from the Altai Mountains (Russia), possible consequences of winter grazing on the development of forest vegetation and cattle breeds in prehistory were assessed. Hedera and Viscum were the best forage available in winter, and their nutritive value, according to the highest N and lowest fibre and lignin concentrations, was higher than the nutritive value of all winter-collected annual twigs of woody species. Nutritive value of annual twigs of all woody species was very low, especially compared with the quality of meadow hay, leaf-fodder or senescent steppe grassland biomass. Therefore, Hedera and Viscum might have been preferentially grazed by livestock and collected by ancient farmers for the supplementary feeding of privileged animals. According to recent analogy, annual twigs of woody species were browsed by livestock. Their insufficient quality could be one of the reasons for the low body size of cattle recorded in prehistory. The most realistic model of livestock breeding in prehistory seems to be year-round grazing, opening forests and causing deforestation in the surroundings of prehistoric settlements.

Occurrence and Management of Wildfires in Northern Hhohho, Swaziland

A study was conducted to determine the status of wildfire and fire management practices in Swaziland. The northern Hhohho region was used as a case study. Information for occurrence of fires was sourced from MODIS fire alert system over a period of 12 months (August 2011 to July 2012). A proforma was used to collect data on land tenure, land use and cover and fire management and suppression measures from land users adjacent to 130 fire sites that were randomly selected from the case study area. Climatic data (rainfall and wind) were obtained from local weather stations. A total of 1,779 fires were recorded over the 12 months period in the whole country and 50% of the fires occurred during the months of August and September. The majority of fire spots (58%) were found in private land as opposed to 42% found in communal land. A significant difference for fire intensities (confidence levels) was observed for forest plantations and cultivation as well as for forest plantations and grazing (ρ<0.05). Honey hunters were the main causes of wildfire, with 29% of the fires attributed to them. This was more prevalent in the forest plantations though some forest plantations provided forest scouts to assist honey hunters to extract the honey, in an effort to reduce the incidents of wildfires. About 56% of wildfires were not suppressed and they caused the maximum possible destruction. The forest plantations had trained fire brigades and yet the rural communities did not have such and they lacked incentives to manage fires, especial when the fires were in adjacent private farms.

Forest edge-interior differentiation in the epiphytic lichen diversity of the forest steppe in the Khangai Mountains, Mongolia

The effects of traditional land use by mobile livestock keepers on biodiversity in forest steppe ecotones are insufficiently studied. Epiphytes are an important part of forest plant diversity. Here we analyze differences in the diversity and composition of the epiphytic lichen vegetation between the edge and the interior of Siberian larch forests in the Khangai Mountains, western Mongolia, which are highly subdivided into patches. We asked whether the epiphytic lichen vegetation at the forest edge differs significantly from that in the interior, whether the edge is inhabited by more nitrophilous species than the interior and whether the density of nomad camps around the forest affects epiphytic lichen diversity. Cover percentages of epiphytic lichen species were recorded from 20 trees per plot on 6 plots in the interior and 6 plots at the edge of Larix sibirica forests. The position of nomad summer camps was surveyed using Global Positioning System. Data were analyzed with pairwise significance tests, analysis of similarities, nonmetric multidimensional scaling and canonical correspondence analysis. The composition of the epiphytic lichen vegetation clearly differed between the two habitats, with more species being more frequent at the edge than in the interior. However, there was no difference in species richness (α-diversity). The epiphyte vegetation at the edge was more uniform and characterized by lower variation of tree-level α-diversity and lower β-diversity than in the interior. At the edge, only nitrophytic lichens were dominant, whereas in the interior, nitrophytes and acidophytes were among the dominant species. This pattern is probably attributable to the spatial heterogeneity of the intensity of forest grazing and was shown to be influenced by the density of nomad summer camps in the vicinity of the forests. Tree-level α-diversity increased with stem diameter, but high-diameter trees were rare. The results suggest that the present level of forest patchiness and the effect of forest grazing increases the diversity of epiphytic lichens on the landscape level, while logging of high-diameter trees reduces lichen diversity.

Increase in plasma total antioxidant capacity of grazing Japanese Black heifers and cows in forestland in Japan

Blood total antioxidant capacity (TAC) has become a key bio-marker for animal health. Forest-grazing cattle are known to forage various native plants that have high TAC. This study evaluated differences of plasma TAC between forest-grazing (FG) and pasture-grazing cattle (PG). Experiment 1 monitored the plasma TAC levels of 32 Japanese Black cattle. The level in PG did not change throughout the grazing period. However, that in FG, which increased from summer, was significantly higher than that in PG through fall (P < 0.05). In experiment 2, we used nine Japanese Black heifers and investigated their blood antioxidant parameters and the TAC in plants that the cattle consumed in late June and September. The plasma TAC levels in FG were significantly higher than those in PG in both periods (P < 0.05). Plasma levels of lipid peroxidation in FG tended to be lower than that in PG (P = 0.098). Furthermore, the TAC levels in various species of shrubs and trees consumed by FG were higher than those in pasture grasses. Results of this study show that plasma TAC of grazing Japanese Black cattle in forestland increase from summer through fall.

Forest management policies and oil wealth in Iran over the last century: A review

AbstractDeforestation is a problem in many developing countries. In Iran, the introduction of forestry management policies in the twentieth century coincided with a period of severe depletion in forest cover. This over‐utilization resulted from tree cutting for road construction, the establishment of sawmills and match factories, and in particular, the growing demand for charcoal and fuelwood for a rapidly increasing population. The formal forestry management policies initiated in the early 1900s were inadequately enforced, leading to continuing loss of forests through largely unregulated exploitation. Despite the discovery of oil in 1908 and natural gas in 1937, gas pipeline construction for domestic consumption was slow, kerosene was only gradually substituted for wood, charcoal consumption only fell steeply after 1960, and the established forest cover decreased sharply between 1970 and 1990. In 1991, the first of the post‐Revolution national Five Year Development Plans commenced and environmental protection was allocated significant budgetary support. The Five Year Plans implemented substantial reductions in livestock grazing in forests and encouraged reforestation, which partly offset the continuing forest removal. Using estimates based on fuelwood consumption in Brazil and USA, the forested area in Iran in 1850 would have disappeared by 2000 without the Government intervention which provided widespread access to fossil fuels. This energy‐source shift decreased local pressure on the dwindling forest resources and was reinforced by Government policies to conserve and extend forests.

Impact on food productivity by fossil fuel independence – A case study of a Swedish small-scale integrated organic farm

The large-scale industrial agriculture that provides the majority of food at present is dependent upon fossil fuels in the form of tractor fuel, mineral fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation. Yet, the age of cheap and abundant fossil fuels will likely come to an end within the coming decades. In this case study, the productivity of a small-scale farm (8 ha arable land, 5.5 ha meadow, 3.5 ha pasture and 18 ha forest) independent on fossil fuels by using organic methods and draught horse power was investigated. The aim was to quantify its productivity when the animal composition and possible alternatives to tractive power were varied. After an analysis of possible solutions, three scenarios for tractive power were selected: draught horse power, diesel tractor, and combination of draught horse power and rapeseed oil fueled tractor. A model that calculates the amount of food available at the farm in terms of meat, milk egg, and crops, converts it into energy units and calculates how many people can be supplied from the farm was developed. The most reasonable of the scenarios studied was when draught horse power was combined with tractor (and combine harvester) driven on locally produced rapeseed oil. Then the farm will have access to all advantages with the tractor and harvester, e.g., timeliness in harvest and lifting heavy loads, and the renewability and efficiency of draught horse power on smaller fields, and lighter operations. This system was able to support between 66 and 82 persons depending on crop yields, milk yields, meat production, fuel demand for the tractor, and availability of forest grazing. Most likely the production capacity lands on ability to support approximately 68–70 persons, and the farm may require fossil fuels to support more than 80 persons. If all farmland globally was to be operated with the same productivity, this would be enough for supplying the global population with food at present.

Factors affecting reproduction of Woodpigeons Columba palumbus in North African forests: 1. Nest habitat selection

Capsule Woodpigeon Columba palumbus nest-tree selection is affected by human disturbance, grazing and tree characteristics. Aims To determine the characteristics of trees used for nesting by Woodpigeons under two levels of grazing and disturbance in a Holm oak Middle Atlas forest, Morocco. Methods Woodpigeon nest-tree selection was investigated in highly disturbed and less-disturbed sites over two years (2010 and 2011). The features of nest-tree characteristics were determined by comparing the characteristics of trees used for nesting to those of randomly selected trees. Results Tree physical characteristics, grazing intensity and level of human disturbance were the main factors determining selection for nest-trees. Woodpigeons chose nesting trees that were greater in height, larger in DBH, lower in base of the live crown, in denser stands and at greater distance from tracks. Conclusions Forest management for Woodpigeon nest habitat selection should focus on controlling the access of vehicles especially trucks, introducing a rotating system of forest utilization for grazing and maintaining (without extending) the cereal crops. These recommendations may assist land managers to plan for continued persistence of this species in Middle Atlas forests.

L'impact des aléas pluviométriques sur les disparités régionales de pauvreté au Sénégal

Résumé Dans cet article, nous tentons d’évaluer l’impact de chocs pluviométriques sur la pauvreté à l’échelle des différentes zones agro-écologiques du Sénégal à l’aide d’un modèle d’équilibre général calculable dynamique dans lequel nous intégrons un indice qui capte les fluctuations pluviométriques. Les résultats de nos simulations attestent que l’impact d’une mauvaise pluviométrie est davantage ressenti par les ruraux des zones agro-écologiques du bassin arachidier, de la zone sylvo-pastorale et de la Casamance, relativement plus dépendantes de la pluviométrie dans leurs activités de production. Compte tenu des liens inter-branches entre l’agriculture et le reste de l’économie, les urbains, en particulier ceux résidant hors de la capitale, sont également affectés. En revanche, lorsque surviennent des périodes d’excédents pluviométriques, l’incidence de la pauvreté baisse chez toutes les catégories de ménages. Classification JEL : Q1, O13, I3, C6

From wooded pasture to timber production – Changes in a European beech (Fagus sylvatica) forest landscape between 1840 and 2010

The forest ecosystems in northern Europe have undergone extensive changes over the last 200 years. We present the first detailed account on how modern forest management has transformed a beech (Fagus sylvatica) dominated forest landscape in southern Sweden. Specifically, we analyse changes in forest distribution, composition and structure since 1840 at Skabersjö estate and discuss the implications for forest biodiversity. Skabersjö estate is a representative example for the development of semi-open wood pastures into managed dense forests for timber production. This development was part of a long-term process during which changing socio-economic conditions initiated a pervasive change of the Swedish forest landscape, including increasing total forest areas and timber stocks but decreasing relative shares of broadleaved trees. The successful transition to net reforestation starting in the mid-nineteenth century benefitted from a new scientific approach to forest management and the banning of forest grazing. At Skabersjö estate, the introduction of organised forestry resulted in steadily increasing timber yields, but the associated changes in forest structure and composition also changed habitat conditions for many species associated to temperate broadleaved trees. A strong decline of old beech trees has resulted in a lower habitat availability for specialised epiphytic and saproxylic species.

Effects of Cattle Grazing on Birds in Interior Douglas-Fir (Pseudotsuga Menziesii) Forests of British Columbia

Livestock grazing is a dominant land use across North America and although the effects of grazing on birds have been studied in grassland, shrubland, and riparian habitats, studies of the effects in forests are rare. We investigated the effects of cattle grazing in forests on vegetation, the relationships between vegetation characteristics and the abundance of foraging and nesting guilds of birds, and the overall effects of grazing on the bird community in the Interior Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) biogeoclimatic zone of British Columbia. Cattle grazing was associated with reduction in ground vegetation height and grass cover, and increases in the number of shrubs and saplings. Bark insectivores, foliage insectivores, cavity nesters, and shrub/tree nesters all responded positively to sapling density. However, this translated into few overall effects of cattle grazing on birds, with only bark insectivores exhibiting greater abundance on grazed areas. Grazed areas also had fewer aerial insectivores but the mechanism driving this remains unclear. Current forest grazing practices at our study sites appear to have few negative effects on bird abundance and diversity, with the possible exception of aerial insectivores. Study of additional sites is required to assess if forest grazing exerts similar effects throughout the Interior Douglas-fir forest. Furthermore, study of the effects of forest grazing on productivity and survival of birds is needed.

Threatened access, risk of eviction and forest degradation: case study of sustainability problem in a remote rural region in India

Degradation of common pool resource (CPR) in developing countries has often been traced to high rate attached by poor people in discounting future flow of benefits, market failure, pressure on carrying capacity or sometimes property right failure. However, the concept of poorly enforced property right and particularly risk of eviction as a measure of insecurity of land tenure has not been adequately examined in the context of degradation of CPR. A game theoretic framework is developed where degradation of forest grazing land is explained in terms of changes in perceived risk of eviction from the encroached land. Logit regression is applied to empirically analyse the impact of perceived fear of reduced access and other variables on the state of degradation. For this purpose, a sample of seven villages is considered in tribal dominated region in West Bengal, India. It is observed that apart from a number of socio-economic variables like poverty, mutual trust and other incomes, perceived fear of eviction (represented as a dummy variable) arising from insecurity of forest land tenure, has a significant impact on forest degradation status in the study region.

Stakeholders' Perception as Support for Forest Landscape Planning

Social sustainability is a key concept introduced in recent decades by international environmental and forestry policies. The paper illustrates the process of stakeholder consultation for the definition of the objectives of the forest landscape plan conducted in a district of the Italian Apennines. Special attention was given to the farmers group, by reason of the great importance of wood pasture in the management system of this area. The results show that the majority of the interviewees feel a strong bond with their territory and with the traditional activities still carried out there, such as forest grazing. However, there are internal differences within the group, mostly linked to age and territory of origin. The multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) supported the investigation of these differences and the analysis of the relationship between farmers and their territory. Information emerged from the interviews with farmers allowed a better understanding of the dynamics of the territory and was revealed to be useful for the development of the forest landscape plan.

Settlements - natural environment relationships and tourism potential in Çamiçi (Tokat - Turkey)

Camici; which is a ward statute in Niksar city in Tokat province; is situated on an important route between Niksar and Unye, connecting Kelkit Basin to the Black Sea coast. It was established on the interior of forest grazing lands of Ardicli and Özdemir villages, and partially on mountain pasture land of Karabodur village. In addition to its natural and cultural richness Çamiçi has potentials of rural recreation and high plateau tourism. The settlements have developed in a dispersed manner with housing zones called “oba” and “site”. In Ilkoba, where the first settlement was established by the people of Niksar, we come across wooden mountain houses built in 1950s. In the following years residental houses, have been built on valleys, lying on inner ranges of Canik Mountains. These kept on increasing by damaging forestlands. Today housing pressure is increasingly continuing on these areas. Houses, generally used as summer houses, were built in different architectural styles incompatible with nature. Although upper level plans of the region have strategic objectives related to developing high plateau tourism, no decisions were taken on the planning for Camici. According to the 2015 Implemantation Development Plan of Camici; prepared as a lower scale plan; housing pressure has increased. For developing settlements in the area new housing zone was offered threefold of the size of floured structuring and present housing zone. At the same time common use areas serving residents living in summer months were offered. Furthermore, to become an centre of attraction for tourism, bicycle paths and race tracks, recreation areas, fair ground – festival area, telepheric line and a musician-artist village was added to the plans of Camici High Plateau. The aim of this study thus was to evaluate development of physical settlements in the context of its relationship with the natural environment in Camici, determine the potential in terms of high plateau tourism, and suggest required constructure criteria. This was acheived by going through present written sources, statistical data, urban development plans, followed by the preparation of land surveys and interviews. The development of settlements from 1950 to present and its relationship with natural evnviroment were examined. The problems of settlement in high plateau related to local governments services were asserted and finally high plateau tourism potential was evaluated.

Forest grazing and seaweed foddering: early Neolithic occupation at Maybole, South Ayrshire

A group of Early Neolithic features probably relating to the cooking of food was excavated. Several of these features contained considerable amounts of carbonised botanical remains, providing a broader insight into the landscape where these features were found. Analysis of the remains suggests that there has been a short phase of occupation, radiocarbon dated to 3780-3650 cal BC.

Early medieval origins of iron mining and settlement in central Sweden: multiproxy analysis of sediment and peat records from the Norberg mining district

The historical Norberg mining district in central Sweden with its shallow, easily accessible iron ores figures prominently in the earliest documents from the 14th century concerning mining or metallurgy. This 1000-km 2 district is considered to be one of the first areas in Sweden exploited for iron ores and, in fact, Europe’s oldest known blast furnace, Lapphyttan, is located in the Norberg district about 10 km from the mines in the village of Norberg (Norbergsby). Earlier archaeological excavations suggest the furnace was in operation as early as the 11th or 12th century (870 and 930 14C yr BP), and a number of other sites in the district have been dated to the 13th–15th centuries. Here, we have analyzed two lake sediment records (Kalven and Noren) from the village of Norberg and a peat record from Lapphyttan. The Lapphyttan peat record was radiocarbon dated, whereas the sediment from Kalven is annually laminated, which provides a fairly precise chronology. Our pollen data indicate that land use in the area began gradually as forest grazing by at least c. AD 1050, with indications of more widespread forest disturbance and cultivation from c. 1180 at Lapphyttan and 1250 at Kalven. Based on 206Pb/ 207Pb isotope ratios in Kalven’s varved sediment record, there is an indication of mining or metallurgy in the area c. 960, but likely not in immediate connection to our sites. Evidence of mining and metallurgy increases gradually from c. 1180 when there is a decline in 206Pb/ 207Pb ratios and an increase in charcoal particles at Lapphyttan, followed by increasing inputs of lithogenic elements in Noren’s sediment record indicating soil disturbance, which we attribute to the onset of mining the iron ore bodies surrounding Noren. From AD 1295 onwards evidence of mining and metallurgy are ubiquitous, and activities accelerate especially during the late 15th century; the maximum influence of Bergslagen ore lead (i.e., the minimum in 206Pb/ 207Pb isotope ratios) in both Kalven and Noren occurs c. 1490–1500, when also varve properties change in Kalven and in Noren sharp increases occur in the concentrations of a range of other ore-related metals (e.g., arsenic, cadmium, copper, iron, lead, mercury and zinc). From the 15th century onwards mining and metallurgy are the dominant feature of the sediment records.

LEGAL ANALYSIS OF ILLEGAL GRAZING IN FOREST LANDS

Illegal grazing in public forests has been considered as petty offenses since 2008 at which the Law No.5728 amending The Law of Petty Offenses, No:5326 was entered into force. This study investigates the petty offenses that the criminal committed and is imposed fine provisioned in Forest Code. In this study, the concept of “Grazing”, “petty offenses”, “definition of petty offenses”, general informantion about petty offenses, criminal, injured party, the aspects of Grazing as a petty offenses, joinder of petty offenses, conformity with the law, the place in which committing petty offenses, sanctions, compensation of damage, prescription, authorities entitles to enforcing sanctions and objection, attempting to committing petty offenses are investigated by considering the approach and methodology of the law applied to the Law of petty offenses. In this study general principles of criminal law was depended upon. In the end of the study, some recommendations are made a series of conclusions are drawn. Keywords: Illegal Grazing, Forest, The Law of Petty Offenses

Grassland productivity and diversity on a tree cover gradient in Nothofagus pumilio in NW Patagonia

Extensive areas of primary forests of lenga ( Nothofagus pumilio (Poepp et Endl.) Krasser) have been transformed into grasslands over the past few decades. In Chile's Aysén region, grazing in remnant forests is common practice but there is little empirical evidence of tree-understorey interactions therein. In an attempt to establish a scientific basis for silvopastoral implementation, the relationship between lenga cover and grassland productivity, quality and species richness was examined. Tree cover was quantified in 14 (20 × 20 m) sites where aboveground herbaceous biomass was evaluated monthly throughout two growing seasons. Herbage quality and plant species richness were measured once at the peak of biomass production in the second year. We discuss radiation transmitted through the canopy and water supply as drivers of the tree-understorey relationship. Changes in herbaceous species composition and richness with varying tree cover are described. Despite interannual differences, scattered trees or medium-density forests allow higher productivity than open areas, as well as an acceptable nutritive value and preservation of native species. Although further studies are required, our results suggest that presence of lenga trees within grazing areas can be an advantageous alternative in terms of biodiversity and productivity, to traditional grazing systems in open grasslands.

Forest Succession and Grazing in William Cameron Park, an Urban Natural Area in Waco, Texas

Abstract William Cameron Park is a 166 ha civic park located at the confluence of the Brazos and Bosque Rivers in Waco, Texas. During the pre-settlement period (first contact—1849), an oak-red cedar forest flourished on the ridge-top. In the early settlement phase (1849–1910), villagers cleared much of the ridge-top for logging and later for grazing. During the late settlement period (1910–present-day), vegetative cover increased markedly after the dedication of Cameron Park released ridge-top pastures. This release event resulted in delayed and differential regeneration of forest cover, first in Juniperus spp. and then in broadleaved species. Regeneration of deciduous species not only occurred after that of Juniperus spp. but initially followed historic fence-lines. Broadleaf species moved into the interiors of former pastures only within the last few decades, first in species such as Ulmus crassifolia and Quercus sinuata and later in Fraxinus texensis. The oldest ridge-top trees were Quercus fusiformis,...