Graphene-based Electrochemical Biosensors Research Articles

Graphene-based materials and electrochemical biosensors: An overview.

Graphene, an exceptional two-dimensional material, has attracted significant attention from the scientific community. Its unique physiochemical properties make it a suitable candidate for many applications in the field of biotechnology and medical sciences. High specific surface area, exceptionally high electrical conductivity, and good biocompatibility of graphene give it a large scope in disease diagnosis and biosensing applications. This review aims at presenting the advances in the journey of graphene-based materials and their successful implication as electrochemical nanobiosensors. The first part of the review summarizes the history, structure, and recent developments in the large-scale production of graphene. It further includes the sensing mechanism, the recent trends in biosensing, and improvements in graphene-based biosensors. The comparative analysis shows graphene-based electrochemical biosensors to have high sensitivity, long-term stability, and low detection limits compared to the various other biosensors.&#xD.

Interdigitated Gear-Shaped Screen-Printed Electrode Using G-PANI Ink for Sensitive Electrochemical Detection of Dopamine

In this research, a novel interdigitated gear-shaped, graphene-based electrochemical biosensor was developed for the detection of dopamine (DA). The sensor’s innovative design improves the active surface area by 94.52% and 57% compared to commercially available Metrohm DropSens 110 screen-printed sensors and printed circular sensors, respectively. The screen-printed electrode was fabricated using laser processing and modified with graphene polyaniline conductive ink (G-PANI) to enhance its electrochemical properties. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were employed to characterize the physiochemical properties of the sensor. Dopamine, a neurotransmitter crucial for several body functions, was detected within a linear range of 0.1–100 µM, with a Limit of Detection (LOD) of 0.043 µM (coefficient of determination, R2 = 0.98) in phosphate-buffer saline (PBS) with ferri/ferrocyanide as the redox probe. The performance of the sensor was evaluated using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and Chronoamperometry, demonstrating high sensitivity and selectivity. The interdigitated gear-shaped design exhibited excellent repeatability, with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 1.2% (n = 4) and reproducibility, with an RSD of 2.3% (n = 4). In addition to detecting dopamine in human serum, the sensor effectively distinguished dopamine in a ternary mixture containing uric acid (UA) and ascorbic acid (AA). Overall, this novel sensor design offers a reliable, disposable, and cost-effective solution for dopamine detection, with potential applications in medical diagnostics and neurological research.

Advances in graphene-based electrochemical biosensors for on-site pesticide detection

The infiltration of pesticides into agricultural soils has emerged as a critical concern, posing substantial threats to the agriculture industry due to soil and water contamination. The detection of these contaminants is critical towards implementing effective environmental remediation strategies and achieving ecosystem sustainability. Electrochemical sensor technology has been demonstrated to be highly promising for this application. Graphene and its derivatives and composites are widely used as modifying materials in these sensors to enhance their analytical performance. This short review discusses recent progress in the application of graphene-based electrochemical sensors in three-electrode and field-effect transistor configurations for the detection of pesticides posing significant risks to the agricultural sector. It highlights the growing significance of graphene-based sensors in mitigating pesticide-related environmental challenges and underscores their role in ensuring the health and diversity of agricultural ecosystems.

Graphene-Based Electrochemical Nano-Biosensors for Detection of SARS-CoV-2

COVID-19, a viral respiratory illness, is caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which was first identified in Wuhan, China, in 2019 and rapidly spread worldwide. Testing and isolation were essential to control the virus’s transmission due to the severity of the disease. In this context, there is a global interest in the feasibility of employing nano-biosensors, especially those using graphene as a key material, for the real-time detection of the virus. The exceptional properties of graphene and the outstanding performance of nano-biosensors in identifying various viruses prompted a feasibility check on this technology. This paper focuses on the recent advances in using graphene-based electrochemical biosensors for sensing the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Specifically, it reviews various types of electrochemical biosensors, including amperometric, potentiometric, and impedimetric biosensors, and discusses the current challenges associated with biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 detection. The conclusion of this review discusses future directions in the field of electrochemical biosensors for SARS-CoV-2 detection, underscoring the importance of continued research and development in this domain.

Smart Graphene-Based Electrochemical Nanobiosensor for Clinical Diagnosis: Review.

The technological improvement in the field of physics, chemistry, electronics, nanotechnology, biology, and molecular biology has contributed to the development of various electrochemical biosensors with a broad range of applications in healthcare settings, food control and monitoring, and environmental monitoring. In the past, conventional biosensors that have employed bioreceptors, such as enzymes, antibodies, Nucleic Acid (NA), etc., and used different transduction methods such as optical, thermal, electrochemical, electrical and magnetic detection, have been developed. Yet, with all the progresses made so far, these biosensors are clouded with many challenges, such as interference with undesirable compound, low sensitivity, specificity, selectivity, and longer processing time. In order to address these challenges, there is high need for developing novel, fast, highly sensitive biosensors with high accuracy and specificity. Scientists explore these gaps by incorporating nanoparticles (NPs) and nanocomposites (NCs) to enhance the desired properties. Graphene nanostructures have emerged as one of the ideal materials for biosensing technology due to their excellent dispersity, ease of functionalization, physiochemical properties, optical properties, good electrical conductivity, etc. The Integration of the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) in the development of biosensors has the potential to improve diagnosis and treatment of diseases through early diagnosis and on time monitoring. The outcome of this comprehensive review will be useful to understand the significant role of graphene-based electrochemical biosensor integrated with Artificial Intelligence AI and IoMT for clinical diagnostics. The review is further extended to cover open research issues and future aspects of biosensing technology for diagnosis and management of clinical diseases and performance evaluation based on Linear Range (LR) and Limit of Detection (LOD) within the ranges of Micromolar µM (10-6), Nanomolar nM (10-9), Picomolar pM (10-12), femtomolar fM (10-15), and attomolar aM (10-18).

Graphene-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Breast Cancer Detection

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common cancer in women, which is also the second most public cancer worldwide. When detected early, BC can be treated more easily and prevented from spreading beyond the breast. In recent years, various BC biosensor strategies have been studied, including optical, electrical, electrochemical, and mechanical biosensors. In particular, the high sensitivity and short detection time of electrochemical biosensors make them suitable for the recognition of BC biomarkers. Moreover, the sensitivity of the electrochemical biosensor can be increased by incorporating nanomaterials. In this respect, the outstanding mechanical and electrical performances of graphene have led to an increasingly intense study of graphene-based materials for BC electrochemical biosensors. Hence, the present review examines the latest advances in graphene-based electrochemical biosensors for BC biosensing. For each biosensor, the detection limit (LOD), linear range (LR), and diagnosis technique are analyzed. This is followed by a discussion of the prospects and current challenges, along with potential strategies for enhancing the performance of electrochemical biosensors.

Graphene-based biosensors for detecting coronavirus: a brief review.

The coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) disease has affected the globe with 770 437 327 confirmed cases, including about 6 956 900 deaths, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) as of September 2023. Hence, it is imperative to develop diagnostic technologies, such as a rapid cost-effective SARS-CoV-2 detection method. A typical biosensor enables biomolecule detection with an appropriate transducer by generating a measurable signal from the sample. Graphene can be employed as a component for ultrasensitive and selective biosensors based on its physical, optical, and electrochemical properties. Herein, we briefly review graphene-based electrochemical, field-effect transistor (FET), and surface plasmon biosensors for detecting the SARS-CoV-2 target. In addition, details on the surface modification, immobilization, sensitivity and limit of detection (LOD) of all three sensors with regard to SARS-CoV-2 were reported. Finally, the point-of-care (POC) detection of SARS-CoV-2 using a portable smartphone and a wearable watch is a current topic of interest.

Laser-induced graphene-based electrochemical biosensors for environmental applications: a perspective.

Biosensors are miniaturized devices that provide the advantage of in situ and point-of-care monitoring of analytes of interest. Electrochemical biosensors use the mechanism of oxidation-reduction reactions and measurement of corresponding electron transfer as changes in current, voltage, or other parameters using different electrochemical techniques. The use of electrochemically active materials is critical for the effective functioning of electrochemical biosensors. Laser-induced graphene (LIG) has garnered increasing interest in biosensor development and improvement due to its high electrical conductivity, specific surface area, and simple and scalable fabrication process. The effort of this perspective is to understand the existing classes of analytes and the mechanisms of their detection using LIG-based biosensors. The manuscript has highlighted the potential use of LIG, its modifications, and its use with various receptors for sensing various environmental pollutants. Although the conventional graphene-based sensors effectively detect trace levels for many analytes in different applications, the chemical and energy-intensive fabrication and time-consuming processes make it imperative to explore a low-cost and scalable option such as LIG for biosensors production. The focus of these potential biosensors has been kept on detection analytes of environmental significance such as heavy metals ions, organic and inorganic compounds, fertilizers, pesticides, pathogens, and antibiotics. The use of LIG directly as an electrode, its modifications with nanomaterials and polymers, and its combination with bioreceptors such as aptamers and polymers has been summarized. The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats analysis has also been done to understand the viability of incorporating LIG-based electrochemical biosensors for environmental applications.

Graphene-Based Electrochemical Sensor for Detection of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Markers.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a group of highly lethal malignant tumors that seriously threaten human health. The main way to improve the survival quality and reduce the mortality of HCC is early diagnosis and treatment. Therefore, it will be of great significance to explore new quantitative detection methods for HCC markers. With the rapid development of electrochemical biosensors and nanomaterials, electrochemical sensors based on graphene can detect tumor markers, with the advantages of simple operation, high detection sensitivity, and specificity. Combined with the published literature in recent years, the article briefly reviews the application of graphene-based electrochemical biosensors in the detection of HCC markers, including alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), Golgi protein-73 (GP73), exosomes, and microRNA-122 (miR-122).

Ultra-selective and real-time detection of dopamine using molybdenum disulphide decorated graphene-based electrochemical biosensor

In this work, a graphene-molybdenum disulphide nanocomposite (pGr-MoS2) was synthesized by a hydrothermal method using pulverized graphite (pGr) as the source of graphene, which exhibited ultra-selective electrochemical (EC) sensing towards dopamine (DA) by exhibiting current response only for DA in the presence of biomolecules such as ascorbic acid (AA), uric acid (UA), epinephrine, norepinephrine, folic acid, glucose, nicotine, caffeine, serotonin acetylcholine, glutathione, cysteine, and histidine. A recent work by our group has demonstrated a simultaneous EC sensing of DA, AA, and UA by pGr with selectivity towards DA and was attributed to the less oxidized and intact aromatic structure of pGr, which interacts with the aromatic ring structure of DA. Intriguingly, pGr-MoS2 surpassed the selectivity property of pGr and all the other reported non-enzymatic DA sensors by exhibiting peak only for DA. The limit of detection value (LOD) obtained for DA using pGr-MoS2 was 0.01 nM (i.e., 10 pM) with a linear dynamic range (LDR) from 0.00001 to 10 μM. Thus, the LDR and LOD values satisfactorily meet the sensitivity requirement for detecting DA, which is 1000 magnitudes lower than the normal physiological concentration of DA. A possible mechanism for this superior selectivity of pGr-MoS2 towards DA was proposed and discussed with evidence. Further, the EC sensing was successfully extended to human blood samples spiked with DA, suggesting the efficiency of the sensor to work in real samples.

Laser-Induced Graphene-Based Enzymatic Biosensor for Glucose Detection.

Laser-induced graphene (LIG) has recently been receiving increasing attention due to its simple fabrication and low cost. This study reports a flexible laser-induced graphene-based electrochemical biosensor fabricated on a polymer substrate by the laser direct engraving process. For this purpose, a 450 nm UV laser was employed to produce a laser-induced graphene electrode (LIGE) on a polyimide substrate. After the laser engraving of LIGE, the chitosan–glucose oxidase (GOx) composite was immobilized on the LIGE surface to develop the biosensor for glucose detection. It was observed that the developed LIGE biosensor exhibited good amperometric responses toward glucose detection over a wide linear range up to 8 mM. The GOx/chitosan-modified LIGE biosensor showed high sensitivity of 43.15 µA mM−1 cm−2 with a detection limit of 0.431 mM. The interference studies performed with some possible interfering compounds such as ascorbic acid, uric acid, and urea exhibited no interference as there was no difference observed in the amperometric glucose detection. It was suggested that the LIGE-based biosensor proposed herein was easy to prepare and could be used for low-cost, rapid, and sensitive/selective glucose detection.

Graphene-based Electrochemical Biosensor for Impedimetric Detection of miRNAs as Potential Cancer Biomarkers

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have shown great potential to be used as biomarkers for the screening and clinical diagnosis of cancer. In this study, an electrochemical biosensor based on graphene-modified glassy carbon electrode was developed for the detection of miRNA-21, a well-known biomarker for the early stage of prostate cancer. A novel molecular tethering agent was used for immobilization of single-stranded probe DNA onto the electrode surface. Different parameters related to biosensor fabrication and experimental conditions were optimized to obtain the highest biosensor response. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was employed to achieve a sensitive and label-free detection method for miRNA-21 through measuring the change in charge-transfer resistance (Rct) before and after hybridization. Under the optimal conditions, the biosensor showed a linear impedimetric response between ΔRct and logarithm of miRNA-21 concentration ranging from 10−14 to 10−8 M with a correlation coefficient of 0.972 and a detection limit of 3 fM. The selectivity of the biosensor was examined against non-complementary miRNA-141. The biosensor showed acceptable reproducibility, regeneration ability and stability as well as remarkable response (recoveries 90%–116%) in real plasma samples. The results indicated that the proposed biosensor could be used as a promising alternative to conventional methods in early clinical and point-of-care cancer diagnosis.

Study on Interaction Between TATA-Box Binding Protein (TBP), TATA-Box and Multiprotein Bridging Factor 1(MBF1) in Beauveria bassiana by Graphene-Based Electrochemical Biosensors.

The regulation of transcription level is an important step in gene expression process. Beauveria bassiana is a broad-spectrum insecticidal fungi widely used in the biologic control of arthropod. The regulation of its transcription level is a multilevel complex process. Multiprotein bridging factor 1(MBF1) is a transcriptional co-activator that bridges sequence-specific activators and the TATA-box binding protein(TBP), Little is known about the interaction between MBF1, TBP, and TBP binding to DNA(TATA-sequences)in filamentous fungi of Beauveria bassiana, The binding of TBP to TATA-box and TBP to MBF1 was investigated via electrochemical biosensor. Graphene oxide has an electronic mobility that is unattainable for any metal, so it will be highly sensitive as a test electrode. Hence, we developed a simple, sensitive and specific sensor based on an TBP probe and graphene oxide that successfully detected the interaction of TBP and TATA-box or MBF1. From the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), we find that the radius will increase when adding TATA-box or MBF1 buffer to the modified TBP protein electrode. When adding no TATA-box or no MBF1, the radius is relatively unchanged. The interaction between TBP and TATA-box or MBF1 was proved based on the results. These data confirmed the specificity of the interactions, (1) our developed graphene-based electrochemical biosensor can be used for monitoring the interaction between TBP and TATA-box or MBF1, (2) TBP can bind to TATA-box, (3) TBP can bind to MBF1, and (4) TBP mediates the interactions of MBF1 to DNA. Therefore, this work provided a label-free, low-cost and simple detection method for the complex process of eukaryotic gene transcription regulation.

Review—Recent Progress in the Graphene-Based Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors

In this review we shortly discuss about the graphene and graphene-based materials synthesis and present the recent year's research progress (2017−2019) in the enhancement of the analytical performance of sensors and biosensors. Particularly, we covered a very broad range of graphene-based electrochemical sensors and biosensors for the detection of glucose, cholesterol, dopamine (DA), ascorbic acid (AA), uric acid (UA), bisphenol A (BPA), cancer biomarkers and heavy metal ions. We believe that the discussed subjects are useful and may be used as an instruction guide for the future developments in the field of graphene and graphene-based materials for sensors and biosensors.

Development of carbon−graphene-based aptamer biosensor for EN2 protein detection

In this study, we developed a screen-printed carbon−graphene-based electrochemical biosensor for EN2 protein detection. The engrailed-2 (EN2) protein, a biomarker for prostate cancer, is known to be a strong binder to a specific DNA sequence (5′-TAATTA-3′) to regulate transcription. To take advantage of this intrinsic property, aptamer probes with TAATTA sequence was immobilized onto the screen-printed carbon−graphene electrode surface via EDC−NHS coupling approach. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) of the electrochemical measurement technique was employed for the quantitative detection of EN2 protein. The hindrance to the redox reaction of potassium ferricyanide on the biosensor surface due to the binding of the immobilized aptamer with its target EN2 protein quantified the protein concentration. Under optimum conditions, the aptamer biosensor can detect EN2 protein over a linear range from 35 to 185 nM with a detection limit of 38.5 nM.

Immobilization of glucose oxidase on 3D graphene thin film: Novel glucose bioanalytical sensing platform

Electrochemical biosensors are responsible for quantification of analytes for medical diagnostics applications. They are considered as a promising means to investigate the content of a biological sample owing to the direct exchange of a biological process to an electronic output signal. Novel characteristics of nanocarbon materials attracted much attention for fabrication of numerous electrochemical biosensors with developed analytical capacities. This paper aims to provide perceptions of 3D graphene-based electrochemical biosensors and to demonstrate its application in glucose detection. The developed glucose biosensing platform exhibits excellent catalytic activity towards glucose detection over a wide linear range of up to 6 mM with sensitivity of 1.63 μA mM−1 cm−2 and the stability of electrode is around 76.9% after one month. The facile and easy electrochemical approach used for the preparation of 3DG–GOD modified GCE may open up new horizons in the production of cost-effective biosensors.

Progress in Graphene-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Cancer Diagnosis

Progress in Graphene-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Cancer Diagnosis

Recent Progress on Graphene-based Electrochemical Biosensors.

The detailed records and conclusions on the important advancements in graphene-based electrochemical biosensors have been reviewed. Due to their outstanding properties, graphene-based materials have been widely studied for the accurate electrochemical detection of many biomolecules, which is extremely vital to the development of biomedical instruments, clinical diagnosis, and disease treatment. This review discusses the graphene research for the effective immobilization of enzymes, including glucose oxidase, horseradish peroxidase, and hemoglobin, etc., and the accurate detection of biomolecules, including glucose, hydrogen peroxide, dopamine, ascorbic acid, uric acid, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, DNA, RNA, and carcinoembryonic antigen, etc. In most of the cases, the graphene-based biosensors exhibited remarkable performance with high sensitivities, wide linear detection ranges, low detection limits, and long-term stabilities.

Recent advances in electrochemical biosensors based on graphene two-dimensional nanomaterials.

Graphene as a star among two-dimensional nanomaterials has attracted tremendous research interest in the field of electrochemistry due to their intrinsic properties, including the electronic, optical, and mechanical properties associated with their planar structure. The marriage of graphene and electrochemical biosensors has created many ingenious biosensing strategies for applications in the areas of clinical diagnosis and food safety. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in the development of graphene based electrochemical biosensors. Special attention is paid to graphene-based enzyme biosensors, immunosensors, and DNA biosensors. Future perspectives on high-performance graphene-based electrochemical biosensors are also discussed.

A Review: Nanomaterials Applied in Graphene-Based Electrochemical Biosensors

Owing to the outstanding conductivity and biocompatibility as well as numerous other fascinating properties of graphene, graphene-based nanohybrids have shown unparalleled superiorities in the field of electrochemical biosensors. We provide a general overview of recent advances and state-of-the-art works related to all types of nanomaterial, including noble metals, transition metals, organic and inorganic dyes, polymers, biomolecules, ionic liquids (ILs), and boronic acid derivatives, applied to functionalize graphene to construct electrochemical biosensors. We are highlighting here types of functionalization, assembly procedures, roles of nanomaterial, and assay strategies. Finally, some future perspectives and possible research directions are also discussed.