Granting Of Privileges Research Articles

How Islam Addresses Poverty and Income Inequality

For decades, poverty and income inequality have always been the scourge of skyrocketing economic growth and remarkable development. This paper attempts to explain the main causes of poverty and income inequality which arethe poor distribution of wealth and lack of opportunity for individual people to acquire wealth and use it. The main cause is the granting of free access to individuals and the private sector to take advantage of economic resources with the power of connection and the granting of privileges through laws and regulations in favor of private foreign funds. In the Islamic economic system, the right to ownership of economic resources provides space for individuals to participate in the development and have access to resources, which is currently dominated by the private sector. The method used in this paper is descriptive qualitative, by exploring literatures of thought of Muslim scholars. The pillars of Islamic economics that regulate ownership of property and the rules on how to use and develop it as well as provide guide distribution of wealth amidst society have brought Islamic society to the era of the glory of Islam where there is justice in economic development.

Historic Changes in Copyright: From Absolute Monopoly to Complete Denial (Copyleft)

In the 21st century, intellectual copyrights face new challenges caused by the emergence of new information technologies and the new results of intellectual activity generated by them. The conditions for creating, using the results of intellectual activity and disposing of exclusive rights to them are rapidly changing, taking into account the intensive development of robotics, artificial intelligence, and the complexity of the Internet space. In his article, the author proposes to critically comprehend and analyze the history of copyright through the study of philosophical justifications, theoretical doctrines and to trace the main trends of the evolutionary path of development of this institution: from the granting of privileges to its complete denial in connection with the rapid development of the Internet and the emergence of “free licenses”.

The Medieval Economy of Salvation by Adam J. Davis

Reviewed by: The Medieval Economy of Salvation by Adam J. Davis Luca Ughetti Adam J. Davis, The Medieval Economy of Salvation (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2019), 317 pp., 6 ills. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, at the time of the greatest development of the trade fair system, the French region of Champagne saw the birth of a dense network of hospitals. The connection between the commercial revolution and the new approach to poverty found one of its most representative expressions in these welfare institutions. Davis explores the impact of hospitals on society as a whole and sheds light on the complexity of this relationship, which went beyond providing care to the weakest. In support of this new form of charity, figures of holiness spread an active commitment to the poor, as in the case of St. Elizabeth of Hungary, who was personally engaged in hospital care. When Mendicant preachers began to describe salvation in market terms, even a small donor became a creditor in a spiritual sense. God would multiply the treasures given to charity with heavenly rewards, if the gift were performed with sincerity of heart, given to those who deserved it and not offered only at the end of the life, when most people feared for the fate of their own soul. The hospital was a privileged recipient of offers, because it immediately assigned them to the assistance practices and the common good. Not least, it provided an accommodation to merchants during the fair period. Counts directed part of the wealth created by fairs to support hospitals through direct donations [End Page 244] or the granting of privileges. Donations could then be inserted into the dynamics of local conflicts, as was the case with the Hôtel-Dieu-le-Comte and Saint-Nicolas in Troyes, the first supported by the count and the second by the authority of the cathedral. Their dispute over the respective area of influence took shape in 1222 in a quarrel for the water level of the Trévois Canal. The hospital however did not just receive the attention of the aristocracy; it was at the center of many interactions with citizens. The analysis of the donors allows the reader to overcome the historiographical conviction that sees the economy of profit supplanting the economy of the gift in that period. The base of donors, in fact, widened and their number increased, with higher percentages coming from the urban bourgeoisie. In some cases, the alms showed a specific destination among the needs of the hospital: wine to celebrate mass, food donations for the conversae, or more frequently gifts, annual rents or houses "for the use of the poor" (139). In this democratization of charity were also found women acting independently of their husbands with the support of the authority of theologians. The distribution shows that donors seemed to follow a special attachment to a particular institution, and seldom in life did they leave gifts to several hospitals. The donation was part of a system of even informal exchanges, where the gift could be a sign of gratitude for a previously received favor or directed to a family member working for the institution. The hospital in turn acted in the field of social exchanges through the assignment of counter-gifts, sometimes in the form of annual rents or as a lump sum in recognition of the generosity received. The hospital economic activity was marked by a careful awareness of the dynamics of exchange: tithes as a profitable investment, the management of stalls at fairs, as well as attention to selling when prices increased, and buying at the lowest possible price. Some financial transactions were comparable to those carried out by noncharitable institutions. The need for liquidity could sometimes be satisfied by selling annual rents at a price considered unfavorable in the long run, in a way similar to that employed by medieval city governments with public debt. Analysis of hospital accounting shows an extreme variety of business relationships and economic networks. Charitable action was not just material help to the poor and the sick but also involved different types of exchanges and included several people. The book offers a precise and detailed casuistry of...

Privilege Campaigning in Tlaxcala

This research examines the alliance formed between the Spanish and the Tlaxcalans during the Conquest of Mexico with particular emphasis on the granting of privileges after petitions to the Spanish Crown. Using arguments made by Matthew Restall’s Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest as a starting point, primary sources such as the Florentine Codex and The Tlaxcalan Actas are used to cite examples of Tlaxcalan motivations, such as land grants and tribute relief, in forming an alliance with Cortes and his men. The Tlaxcalans, who felt that their contribution to the Conquest was not rewarded, made multiple campaigns in order to persuade the Crown to grant economic rewards. The Lienzo de Tlaxcala, a primary pictorial source made one generation post-Conquest, is one petition that is analyzed in this research. Emphasis when analyzing the Lienzo will be placed on the elements of visual persuasion that would appeal to a Spanish audience, such as the acceptance of Catholicism and military aide. The significance of the Lienzo campaign is that it demonstrates indigenous agency in a system that ultimately favored Spaniards.

Santa Casa de Misericórdia of Cachoeira: charity and philanthropy in the context of the imperial government's welfare policy

The constitution and operationalization of a religious brotherhood in Cachoeira, Bahia province, during the Brazilian imperial period, is investigated. Deserving of particular attention is the decree issued by Emperor Pedro I, which raised the then centennial São João de Deus Hospital, a royal institution administered by officials designated by the city council, to the status of Santa Casa de Misericórdia. The policy regulating the granting of privileges and provincial monies to all the institutions of this designation in Bahia is also analyzed. The study concludes that the financial policy adopted by the Brazilian State in Bahia constituted a significant stimulus both for the founding and for the financial upkeep of the Cachoeira brotherhood.

Obstacles of economic reform in the Kurdistan region of Iraq

The economic and political conditions for the period (2003-2014) were an appropriate opportunity for an economic reform movement, but the existence of obstacles led to the waste of economic resources, which did not help in the construction of infrastructure for the Kurdistan Region, causing the failure to provide public services for the current and future generation, but was wasted on salaries Fictional privileges and random appointments were more than half of the class of peasants and skilled workers who did not complete primary school, which weighed on the budget and disrupted the market movement, causing increased import-to-supply ratios. The granting of privileges and jobs to the unworthy has left the government unable to make payments to new graduates, increasing unemployment rates over time.Hence, the research will try, despite the lack of sources and the difficulty of obtaining data related to the re-evaluation of the economic reform movement in the Kurdistan Region, through discussion of the problem of the concept of economic reform, to prove the concept of comprehensiveness, when perpetuating and scrutiny, and focus on the obstacles to reform, and the relationship of these Economic reform cannot succeed in isolation from other related reforms. Economic reform aims to address mistakes, reduce poverty and unemployment, and secure services and jobs that are Wyatt political action, and high levels of poverty and unemployment rates are often one of the political and administrative errors results.

O direito educacional ao ensino primário nas relações do agir comunicativo do Estado em face da sociedade na Província do Pará

O presente estudo que objetivou identificar as relações estabelecida entre os sujeitos sociais e o Estado, por meio da comunicação ocorrida através da linguagem empregada nos textos legislativos dos presidentes da Província do Estado do Pará, à época do período imperial. Quais os mecanismos acionados pela sociedade para ter acesso ao direito educacional nas vilas do interior da então Província do Pará, durante o período imperial? Realizou-se pesquisa bibliográfica e documental concernente ao século XIX. Além de instituir sua interferência na sociedade a partir das regras jurídicas, o Estado brasileiro e suas Províncias, na fase imperial, também faziam circular as normas regulamentadoras por meio dos jornais, relatórios, a imprensa, na organização e funcionamento curricular, na seleção dos conhecimentos oficiais ensinados nas instituições escolares, e pela inspeção e controle sobre o trabalho dos professores, de modo a incluir o outro na teia discursiva baseada na racionalidade das ações públicas e da forma como se efetiva a distribuição dos papeis sociais, principalmente tendo a oferta do direito à educação e o acesso às Escolas de Primeiras Letras como suas premissas na concessão de privilégios e imposição de deveres.

ВИКОРИСТАННЯ ЗАХИСНИХ ТАРИФІВ ТА ЇХ ВПЛИВ НА РОЗВИТОК ПРОМИСЛОВОСТІ ТА СІЛЬСЬКОГО ГОСПОДАРСТВА УКРАЇНИ В ХІХ СТОЛІТТІ

The article covers the problematic issues of protectionism and introduction of railroad protective tariffs and the problem of introducing protective railway tariffs for the development of industry and agriculture as to limiting imports of industrial goods and granting of privileges to their own producers. Also in the article the issue of creating protective barriers and changes in railway policy, as well as its reform, is being discussed.

Administrative-legal Regulation of Grant of Privileges, Indemnifications and Pensions for Persons Who Suffered as a Result of the Chornobyl Catastrophe

Administrative-legal Regulation of Grant of Privileges, Indemnifications and Pensions for Persons Who Suffered as a Result of the Chornobyl Catastrophe

Poder regio y control del espacio: monarcas y monasterios de Castilla (c. 1312-1390)

En los reales monasterios, los monarcas no sólo proyectaron su poder, sino que redujeron el de la nobleza y los prelados seculares a través de las fundaciones monásticas, la concesión de privilegios y la participación en las reformas. Se sirvieron de los mismos para dar solución a las despoblaciones y allí se albergaron los reyes y sus huéspedes y se celebraron ceremonias políticas. Los religiosos ocuparon cargos cortesanos, ejercieron como embajadores y colaboraron en los episodios bélicos.

Restoring the primacy of technological innovation

The industrial revolution depended upon a system of individual property rights which was unusually capable of forcing self-interest to serve the public good as well. This system led to unprecedented growth of wealth, primarily because it encouraged technological innovation. Over time, however, the laws of property (notably those relating to the corporation and to information protection) were captured by those who could benefit from them. In particular, financiers were released from the disciplines which had applied to them since the invention of money, and this made investment in financial innovation more attractive than technology. During the first part of the industrial revolution, growth in credit meant growth in wealth, but there is now a mass of empirical evidence that this correlation has turned negative. A series of proposals for reversing this trend is offered, specifically changes in corporation law and new means for protection of information. These include measuring grants of privilege by money instead of time, compulsory expert arbitration of disputes, and protection of innovation directly instead of indirectly, which is all that patents purport to offer. It is also argued that public provision of finance for innovation should generally follow a US model (which is described) rather than the practice of the EU, and that funding of university research should be transmitted through firms to a much greater extent than at present. A variant of an earlier Central Policy Review Staff experiment in the UK is suggested as offering some chance of introducing these reforms in the face of politicians’ vulnerability to interest pressures.

Entre la doble vara y el privilegio. La administración de la justicia frente al fenómeno de la sodomía masculina en el Virreinato del Perú (Siglos XVI-XVII)

This paper investigates the both the civil and Episcopal legal actions taken on issues on issues related to the crime of sodomy in the Viceroyalty of Peru during the 16 th and 17 th centuries. The extent to which family, social and ethnic background, as well as the relationship of the accused with powerful networks or groups influenced the actions taken by the magistrates and the fulmination of the causes is a particular focus point of the study. Additionally, within the scope of these trials for sodomy, how the granting of privileges and corporate logic also served as possible effective mechanisms used to manipulate and avoid legal provisions is also examined.

Belgian Courts and the Immunity of International Organizations

The functional underpinning of institutional immunity remains crucial today in order to guarantee the independent fulfilment by the organization of its mandate. Despite this relatively firmly established principle, domestic courts and tribunals have shown in recent cases that they are very critical of the idea of the absolute character of international organization immunity, not the least in relation to the right of access to court, guaranteed inter alia by Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Belgium is host to between 50 and 100 international organizations or liaison offices of international organizations, most of which are located in Brussels. For that reason, the number of potential disputes involving an international organization in Belgium is important. This paper gives an overview of the official Belgian policy in respect of international organization immunity, and analyses relevant Belgian case-law that considers the rationale behind the grant of privileges and immunities to international organizations. It then considers the source of an international organization’s immunity, the scope of that immunity, and the obligation to provide for alternative means of dispute settlement and the individual’s right of access to court.

Reforming the provision of benefits on railways

In the article the variant of reforming of system of granting of privileges on a railway transport by principle of indemnification of guarantees only to the most unprotected, in the social sense, population is offered.

Monopolies and the Constitution: A History of Crony Capitalism

This article explores the right of the people to be free from government granted monopolies or from what we would today call “Crony Capitalism.” We trace the constitutional history of this right from Tudor England down to present day state and federal constitutional law. We begin with Darcy v. Allen (also known as the Case of Monopolies decided in 1603) and the Statute of Monopolies of 1624, both of which prohibited English Kings and Queens from granting monopolies. We then show how the American colonists relied on English rights to be free from government granted monopolies during the Revolutionary War period as, for example, when American colonists protested against the East India Company’s trade monopoly by holding the Boston Tea Party. We show that hatred of trade monopolies led in part to the American Revolution. During the drafting and debates on the federal Constitution, Thomas Jefferson and George Mason, as well as several Antifederalists, expressed grave concern about government grants of monopoly power. The new federal government was thus only given the enumerated power to create monopolies in the patent and copyright areas, and the Framers at Philadelphia deliberately chose not to give Congress the power to charter corporations which might be used to grant monopolies. During the Jacksonian era, it was a hatred of government grants of monopoly that helped to lead to President Jackson’s killing of the federally incorporated Bank of the United States. The same sentiment led as well to the Supreme Court’s narrowing of the Contract Clause in the Charles River Bridge case. Many state laws were struck down during the Jacksonian era for being monopolies, class laws, or grants of special privilege. By the 1850s, the Abolitionists themselves had begun to borrow the antimonopoly idea to argue that slavery was a constitutionally forbidden monopoly by slave owners of the labor of African Americans. By 1868, when the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted, the Reconstruction Congress was firmly opposed to all forms of class legislation, grants of special privilege, or of monopoly. Concerns about the evils of government granted monopolies were thus central to the original meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment. We argue that Americans have a constitutional right to be free from government grants of monopoly and other forms of class legislation because of: 1) the rich English and American colonial history with respect to the right to be free from monopolies; 2) the state constitutional law bans on monopolies, class legislation, and special grants of privilege; 3) the limiting of federal enumerated power to grant monopolies to the patent and copyright context; and 4) the original meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment. We think that the Slaughter-House Cases were wrongly decided, and we argue against rational basis review in economic liberties cases. We provide historical and legal arguments that defend the classical liberalism of John Tomasi in his new book defending economic liberty, Free Market Fairness.

A Study On The Effects Of Nepotism, Favoritism And Cronyism On Organizational Trust In The Auditing Process In Family Businesses In Turkey

Nepotism, favoritism and cronyism, which can be seen in all sectors of todays business world, have become quite common behavior. The granting of privileges to certain individuals is an extremely disturbing situation to the organizations employees and the lack of trust arising under such conditions negatively affects job satisfaction, organizational loyalty, and individual performance, and can hinder the internal control system in the auditing process. In this study, the effects of nepotism, favoritism and cronyism on organizational loyalty regarding the internal control system in the auditing process in the Turkish textiles sector are examined. In order to uncover the relationships in question, frequency breakdowns, Cronbachs Alpha reliability testing, and regression analysis are performed.

What is the utilization of the SAGES guidelines by its members?

The development and implementation of evidence-based clinical practice guidelines involves many challenges. The Society of the American Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons (SAGES) has been at the forefront of guideline development for laparoscopic surgery since 1991, providing its membership with guidelines on the clinical application of procedures and the granting of privileges. The objective of this study was to assess the use of SAGES guidelines by its members. An electronic survey of SAGES members was conducted via e-mail in August 2007. Members were asked if they used the guidelines, how often, for what purposes and when, and to rank the frequency of use and the usefulness of each of the 26 guidelines. They also were asked to suggest topics for new guideline development and to provide comments. Two hundred thirty-nine SAGES members (4.1%) responded to the survey; 121 (50%) responders used the guidelines. Of these, 95% accessed the guidelines monthly or less often, 58% after hours, 52% during work hours, and 9% while on call. Reasons for guideline use included developing practice protocols (56%) and patient treatment paradigms (51%), creating education and training guidelines for staff privileges (35%), and credentialing new medical staff (25%). The most often used and most useful guidelines included clinical application guidelines on laparoscopic bariatric, antireflux, biliary, and colorectal surgery, laparoscopic appendectomy, and deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis. Some respondents indicated no knowledge of guideline existence and made requests for new guidelines. The results of this survey provided valuable information about current use of SAGES guidelines by its members. The pattern of use highlights the need for interventions that increase member awareness and adoption of these guidelines. Such efforts are currently underway.

Immunity of International Organizations in Post-conflict International Administrations

AbstractThe role played by international organizations in international law has evolved in the past decades. However, the continued application of an absolute system of immunities to international organizations has often led to a perception of impunity, in particular when organizations are involved in the administrations of foreign territories. Even though absolute immunity has been described as an 'anachronism', this article argues that international organization immunity serves a useful and essential purpose. The grant of privileges and immunities to international organizations is indispensable to allow the organization to effectively and independently carry out its functions. The functional reflections that lie at the basis of the immunities system of international organizations still are extremely pertinent when organizations exercise administrative duties in place of a state. This articles thus claims that there is a need to maintain immunities in order to preserve institutional autonomy, even when the UN or another international organization has taken up administrative duties in a state or territory, and suggests that, instead of proposing a revision or abolition of the system of immunities, the focus should be placed on the establishment of effective alternative mechanisms to assess alleged violations of the international legal obligations of the organization.

The London OMED position statement for credentialing and quality assurance in digestive endoscopy

The goal of every clinician (and the health systems in which they work) is to provide high quality medical services. In the case of digestive endoscopy, this means that use of the procedures should adhere to accepted indications, that accurate diagnoses are made, that successful therapies are applied, and that all this is done while maximizing the patient’s comfort, and minimizing the risks. The quality assurance process includes granting of privileges only to competent practitioners, ensuring ongoing competence through re-privileging, and engaging in quality improvement through measurement and remediation. Quality is an issue for everyone involved in the endoscopy process, not just the endoscopists. As a service to the world community, the leadership of OMED (Organisation Mondiale d’Endoscopie Digestive, World Organisation of Digestive Endoscopy) charged Dr. Douglas Faigel and Dr. Peter Cotton to chair a working party of interested endoscopists from a wide range of countries and organizations to develop universal guidelines to assist healthcare institutions in ensuring that the highest quality care be given. The working party met twice, and conducted most of its deliberations by correspondence and conference calls. All known national and international organizations supporting the practice of endoscopy were interrogated for information on relevant topics; many already have extensive publications [1–7]. A list of members of the working party is given in the Appendix. It is well recognized that resources vary around the world, and that digestive endoscopy is regulated in different ways in different countries (and very little in some), so that the application of these guidelines will vary enormously in extent andmethod. However, we believe that the recommendations can provide a useful platform from which all systems can move forward. These guidelines should also be used by educational organizations throughout the world to set goals in their continuing medical education programs, thus improving the quality of endoscopy worldwide. This review does not include discussion of the issues involved in training and credentialing nonphysician endoscopists, which is becoming more common, especially in Britain. However, the same general principles should apply.

The Merchant Adventurers of England: The Place of the Adventurers of York and the North in the Late Middle Ages

The 1478 complaint of the northern adventurers over their alleged ill-treatment by the governor of the Londoners is the starting point for this investigation. The Merchant Adventurers of England was the popular name for the Merchants of the Nation of England trading to the Parties of Brabant, Flanders, Holland and Zeeland. Its religious fraternity was dedicated to St Thomas Becket. Its first grant of privileges was from Brabant in 1296, and its governor was made permanent and salaried in 1421. The wool merchants, including those of York, were prominent in the company until their transfer to Calais. With the decline of the wool trade and the rise of the English cloth industry, the dominant role passed to those merchants who exported cloth to the Low Countries. In York, the Mercers, the dry-goods merchants, benefited from this change, and became the leading mercantile guild of the city, incorporated in 1430. Northern adventurers suffered from considerable competition from those of London, who were numerically always able to control decisions made at the overseas meetings, and they in their turn were dominated by the Mercers of London. The complaints of 1478, nevertheless, greatly misrepresented the situation, and all branches of the company benefited from the increased privileges acquired for the English by the governor at this date in Antwerp and elsewhere. Trading conditions had again changed by the time the York Mercers were re-incorporated as the Society of Merchant Adventurers of the City of York in 1580.