Gramicidin Perforated-patch Recordings Research Articles

Investigating mechanisms of diminished GABAergic inhibitory effcacy in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of AngII-salt hypertensive mice

The PVN receives glutamatergic excitation from sodium and AngII sensing regions of the forebrain along with dense GABAergic inhibition from the surrounding peri-nuclear zone (PNZ). Studies in various models of hypertension and heart failure report that GABAergic inhibitory tonus is diminished, contributing to the net increase in PVN-driven sympathetic nerve activity that contributes to the pathogenesis of these chronic and prevalent cardiovascular diseases. Here we compared GABAergic inhibition of the PVN in normotensive mice consuming a normal salt (0.4% NaCl) diet (NSD) and hypertensive mice consuming a high salt (4% NaCl) diet (HSD) with systemic infusion of AngII (600 ng/kg/min, s.c.) (AngII-salt HTN). Using gramicidin perforated patch recordings in brain slices, we determined that the GABA equilibrium potential (EGABA) of PVN neurons was significantly depolarized in the AngII-salt HTN group (Δ+34.3 ± 7.5 mV) compared to the NSD group (n=3 cells) (P=0.003), consistent with diminished inhibitory effcacy of GABA and reflecting increased intracellular [Cl−]. Western blot analysis of PVN punches yielded perplexing results, showing increased expression of the Cl− efflux transporter KCC2 (+12%) and diminished expression of the Cl− influx transporter NKCC1 (-38%) — suggestive of compensation for a separate cause of elevated intracellular [Cl−]. Previously, we determined that EGABA can be rapidly and reversibly depolarized (+9 mV) by perfusing slices with high K+ (+10 mM) aCSF in the presence of ionotropic glutamate receptor blockade with CNQX (10 μM) and APV (50 μM). Hence it seems that heightened synaptic GABA release is capable of increased intracellular [Cl−]. Given that the magnitude of the latter effect is small relative to the measured depolarization of EGABA in AngII-salt HTN neurons, increased synaptic GABA release appears inadequate to explain the measured increase of EGABA in AngII-salt HTN. We posit that glial buffering of extracellular Cl− might contribute to the unexpectedly large EGABA depolarization in AngII-salt HTN. Notably, EGABA among PNZ GABAergic neurons was also significantly depolarized in the AngII-salt HTN group (Δ+22.4 ± 8.8 mV, n=3 cells) compared to NSD controls (n=3 cells) (P=0.037). Mechanism(s) supporting this are presently unknown. Of special interest, preliminary data indicate that most GABAergic PNZ neurons have recurrent GABAergic responses that are predicted (based on having depolarized EGABA) to have diminished feedback inhibition in the AngII-salt group. If true, PNZ neurons would be expected to increase synaptic GABA release in the PVN of mice with AngII-salt HTN. What contribution the latter effect makes to the net depolarization of EGABA in PVN neurons is under investigation. NS115072 (GMT). This is the full abstract presented at the American Physiology Summit 2024 meeting and is only available in HTML format. There are no additional versions or additional content available for this abstract. Physiology was not involved in the peer review process.

Diminished inhibitory efficacy of GABA on PVN neurons in AngII‐salt hypertension reflects a KCC2‐independent increase of intracellular Cl‐ concentration

The hypothalamic PVN receives glutamatergic excitation from sodium and AngII sensing regions of the forebrain along with dense GABAergic inhibition from the surrounding peri-nuclear zone (PNZ). Previously, we found that synaptic glutamate release in PVN enhances GABA inhibition, but whether forebrain inputs can do so in the setting of hypertension (HTN) is unknown. Studies indicate that a high salt diet alone does not raise mean arterial pressure (MAP), while AngII treatment raises MAP in proportion to the level of salt intake. This suggests that whereas excitatory inputs to PVN driven by high salt intake alone cannot overcome PVN GABA inhibition, AngII driven inputs can. The notion that GABA inhibition of PVN is strengthened forebrain inputs in AngII-salt HTN is contrary to a prior report that GABA inhibition in AngII-salt HTN is reduced. To reconcile these seemingly disparate findings, we compared mechanisms regulating PVN GABA inhibition in mice consuming a normal salt (0.4% NaCl) diet (NSD), a high salt (4% NaCl) diet (HSD) or a HSD with AngII (600 ng/kg/min, s.c.) infusion (AngII-salt HTN). Using gramicidin perforated patch recordings, we determined that the GABA equilibrium potential (EGABA) of PVN neurons was not different between NSD (-67.2 ± 6.3 mV, n=3 cells) and HSD (-53.7 ± 15.6 mV, n=4 cells) mice, but was significantly depolarized in mice with AngII-salt HTN (-32.9 ± 8.8 mV, n=6 cells)(P=0.0033). This indicates that in AngII-salt HTN the inhibitory effect of GABA on PVN neurons decreases as [Cl-]i increases. Normally, [Cl-]i is held low by activities of KCC2 and NKCC1, which promote neuronal Cl- efflux and influx, respectively. In brain slices, KCC2 inhibition (VU0463271, 10 µM) rapidly depolarized PVN EGABA, consistent with blunting of GABA inhibition. Accordingly, PVN inhibition of KCC2 (VU0463271, 100 pmol, 25 nL) in vivo increased renal SNA, suggesting GABA was switched from an inhibitory to an excitatory transmitter. Consistent with this, PVN GABA-AR activation (muscimol, 50 pmol, 25 nL) during KCC2 inhibition increased renal SNA. Thus, KCC2 appears critical for maintaining low [Cl-]i and a hyperpolarized EGABA in PVN. In light of this, it would seem likely that elevated PVN [Cl-]i in AngII-salt HTN reflects a relative loss of KCC2 Cl- efflux. To investigate this, western blot analysis of PVN punches was performed and revealed that expression of KCC2 and NKCC1 was increased and decreased, respectively, both in mice consuming a HSD alone and mice with AngII-salt HTN. These changes were unexpected as they are predicted to drive [Cl-]i low, not high. Therefore, expression changes appear aimed at buffering elevated [Cl-]i caused by an alternative mechanism, possibly excess Cl- influx through GABA-AR, reflecting increased, not decreased, GABA release in AngII-salt HTN. Similar expression changes in HSD mice suggests that high salt intake generates a permissive state of Cl- ionic plasticity that blunts PVN GABA inhibition and facilitates AngII-salt HTN.

Cation-chloride cotransporters and the polarity of GABA signalling in mouse hippocampal parvalbumin interneurons.

Cation-chloride cotransporters (CCCs) play a critical role in controlling the efficacy and polarity of GABAA receptor (GABAA R)-mediated transmission in the brain, yet their expression and function in GABAergic interneurons has been overlooked. We compared the polarity of GABA signalling and the function of CCCs in mouse hippocampal pyramidal neurons and parvalbumin-expressing interneurons. Under resting conditions, GABAA R activation was mostly depolarizing and yet inhibitory in both cell types. KCC2 blockade further depolarized the reversal potential of GABAA R-mediated currents often above action potential threshold. However, during repetitive GABAA R activation, the postsynaptic response declined independently of the ion flux direction or KCC2 function, suggesting intracellular chloride build-up is not responsible for this form of plasticity. Our data demonstrate similar mechanisms of chloride regulation in mouse hippocampal pyramidal neurons and parvalbumin interneurons. Transmembrane chloride gradients govern the efficacy and polarity of GABA signalling in neurons and are usually maintained by the activity of cation-chloride cotransporters, such as KCC2 and NKCC1. Whereas their role is well established in cortical principal neurons, it remains poorly documented in GABAergic interneurons. We used complementary electrophysiological approaches to compare the effects of GABAA receptor (GABAA R) activation in adult mouse hippocampal parvalbumin interneurons (PV-INs) and pyramidal cells (PCs). Loose cell-attached, tight-seal and gramicidin-perforated patch recordings all show GABAA R-mediated transmission is slightly depolarizing and yet inhibitory in both PV-INs and PCs. Focal GABA uncaging in whole-cell recordings reveal that KCC2 and NKCC1 are functional in both PV-INs and PCs but differentially contribute to transmembrane chloride gradients in their soma and dendrites. Blocking KCC2 function depolarizes the reversal potential of GABAA R-mediated currents in PV-INs and PCs, often beyond firing threshold, showing KCC2 is essential to maintain the inhibitory effect of GABAA Rs. Finally, we show that repetitive 10Hz activation of GABAA Rs in both PV-INs and PCs leads to a progressive decline of the postsynaptic response independently of the ion flux direction or KCC2 function. This suggests intraneuronal chloride build-up may not predominantly contribute to activity-dependent plasticity of GABAergic synapses in this frequency range. Altogether our data demonstrate similar mechanisms of chloride regulation in mouse hippocampal PV-INs and PCs and suggest KCC2 downregulation in the pathology may affect the valence of GABA signalling in both cell types.

Discrepancy between TRPA1 activation by reversible and irreversible electrophiles suggests involvement of cytosolic cofactors other than polyphosphates.

Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) is a non‐selective cation channel that is expressed in a subset of nociceptive afferent sensory nerves. When activated, TRPA1 can evoke nociceptive responses (e.g. pain and defensive reflexes), as well as peripheral neurogenic inflammation. TRPA1 is activated by a host of endogenous (inflammatory mediators) and exogenous (pollutants, food) agonists. Many TRPA1 agonists are electrophilic compounds that covalently modify reactive cysteine residues on TRPA1, leading to activation of the channel. Electrophiles can bind through reversible or irreversible reactions based on the structure of the compound. Here, patch clamp techniques and calcium imaging have been used to characterize human TRPA1 (hTRPA1) channel activity (expressed in HEK293 cells) in the presence of reversible and irreversible electrophiles. Calcium imaging shows that both reversible electrophiles (e.g. allylisothiocyanate [AITC]) and irreversible electrophiles (e.g. iodoacetamide [IA] and N‐ethylmaleimide [NEM]) rapidly induce TRPA1 activation. In contrast, our patch clamp studies show a discrepancy between irreversible and reversible electrophilic TRPA1 activation. Whole cell patch clamp studies exhibit a reduction in the kinetics and magnitude of TRPA1 activation by IA and NEM compared to AITC. Furthermore, single channel patch clamp experiments display reduced open probability with IA and NEM compared to AITC. Both whole cell patch and excised patch clamp recordings were performed in the presence of 5mM polyphosphates. In preliminary gramicidin perforated patch recordings there was no difference in NEM and AITC‐evoked TRPA1 activation. Thus in intact cellular assays (Ca2+ imaging and gramicidin‐perforated patch) there is little difference in TRPA1 activation by reversible and irreversible electrophiles, whereas in dialyzed cellular assays (whole cell patch and excised patch) irreversible electrophiles evoked reduced TRPA1 activation compared to reversible electrophiles. The data suggests that cytosolic factors other than polyphosphates are important for TRPA1 activation by irreversible electrophilic ligands.Support or Funding InformationNHLBI R01 (HL119802) and Supplement (HL119802‐S1)

Contribution of Resting Conductance, GABAA-Receptor Mediated Miniature Synaptic Currents and Neurosteroid to Chloride Homeostasis in Central Neurons.

Maintenance of a low intraneuronal Cl– concentration, [Cl–]i, is critical for inhibition in the CNS. Here, the contribution of passive, conductive Cl– flux to recovery of [Cl–]i after a high load was analyzed in mature central neurons from rat. A novel method for quantifying the resting Cl– conductance, important for [Cl–]i recovery, was developed and the possible contribution of GABAA and glycine receptors and of ClC-2 channels to this conductance was analyzed. The hypothesis that spontaneous, action potential-independent release of GABA is important for [Cl–]i recovery was tested. [Cl–]i was examined by gramicidin-perforated patch recordings in medial preoptic neurons. Cells were loaded with Cl– by combining GABA or glycine application with a depolarized voltage, and the time course of [Cl–]i was followed by measurements of the Cl– equilibrium potential, as obtained from the current recorded during voltage ramps combined with GABA or glycine application. The results show that passive Cl– flux contributes significantly, in the same order of magnitude as does K+-Cl– cotransporter 2 (KCC2), to [Cl–]i recovery and that Cl– conductance accounts for ∼ 6% of the total resting conductance. A major fraction of this resting Cl– conductance is picrotoxin (PTX)-sensitive and likely due to open GABAA receptors, but ClC-2 channels do not contribute. The results also show that when the decay of GABAA receptor-mediated miniature postsynaptic currents (minis) is slowed by the neurosteroid allopregnanolone, such minis may significantly quicken [Cl–]i recovery, suggesting a possible steroid-regulated role for minis in the control of Cl– homeostasis.

Synaptic Inhibition in Avian Interaural Level Difference Sound Localizing Neurons.

Synaptic inhibition plays a fundamental role in the neural computation of the interaural level difference (ILD), an important cue for the localization of high-frequency sound. Here, we studied the inhibitory synaptic currents in the chicken posterior portion of the dorsal nucleus of the lateral lemniscus (LLDp), the first binaural level difference encoder of the avian auditory pathway. Using whole-cell recordings in brain slices, we provide the first evidence confirming a monosynaptic inhibition driven by direct electrical and chemical stimulation of the contralateral LLDp, establishing the reciprocal inhibitory connection between the two LLDps, a long-standing assumption in the field. This inhibition was largely mediated by GABAA receptors; however, functional glycine receptors were also identified. The reversal potential for the Cl− channels measured with gramicidin-perforated patch recordings was hyperpolarizing (−88 mV), corresponding to a low intracellular Cl− concentration (5.2 mm). Pharmacological manipulations of KCC2 (outwardly Cl− transporter) activity demonstrate that LLDp neurons can maintain a low intracellular Cl− concentration under a high Cl− load, allowing for the maintenance of hyperpolarizing inhibition. We further demonstrate that hyperpolarizing inhibition was more effective at regulating cellular excitability than depolarizing inhibition in LLDp neurons.

Assessment of anoxia tolerance and photoperiod dependence of GABAergic polarity in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis

The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis is reported to be anoxia-tolerant and if the tolerance mechanism is similar to that of the anoxia-tolerant painted turtle, GABA should play an important role. A potentially confounding factor investigating the role of GABA in anoxia tolerance are reports that GABA has both inhibitory and excitatory effects within L. stagnalis central ganglion. We therefore set out to determine if seasonality or photoperiod has an impact on: 1) the anoxia-tolerance of the intact pond snail, and 2) the response of isolated neuroganglia cluster F neurons to exogenous GABA application. L. stagnalis maintained on a natural summer light cycle were unable to survive any period of anoxic exposure, while those maintained on a natural winter light cycle survived a maximum of 4h. Using intracellular sharp electrode recordings from pedal ganglia cluster F neurons we show that there is a photoperiod dependent shift in the response to GABA. Snails exposed to a 16h:8h light:dark cycle in an environmental chamber (induced summer phenotype) exhibited hyperpolarizing inhibitory responses and those exposed to a 8h:16h light:dark cycle (induced winter phenotype) exhibited depolarizing excitatory responses to GABA application. Using gramicidin-perforated patch recordings we also found a photoperiod dependent shift in the reversal potential for GABA. We conclude that the opposing responses of L. stagnalis central neurons to GABA results from a shift in intracellular chloride concentration that is photoperiod dependent and is likely mediated through the relative efficacy of cation chloride co-transporters. Although the physiological ramifications of the photoperiod dependent shift are unknown this work potentially has important implications for the impact of artificial light pollution on animal health.

Unitary synaptic connections among substantia nigra pars reticulata neurons

Neurons in substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) are synaptically coupled by local axon collaterals, providing a potential mechanism for local signal processing. Because SNr neurons fire spontaneously, these synapses are constantly active. To investigate their properties, we recorded spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (sIPSCs) from SNr neurons in brain slices, in which afferents from upstream nuclei are severed, and the cells fire rhythmically. The sIPSC trains contained a mixture of periodic and aperiodic events. Autocorrelation analysis of sIPSC trains showed that a majority of cells had one to four active unitary inputs. The properties of the unitary IPSCs (uIPSCs) were analyzed for cells with one unitary input, using a model of periodic presynaptic firing and stochastic synaptic transmission. The inferred presynaptic firing rates and coefficient of variation of interspike intervals (ISIs) corresponded well with direct measurements of spiking in SNr neurons. Methods were developed to estimate the success probability, amplitude distributions, and kinetics of the uIPSCs, while removing the contribution from aperiodic sIPSCs. The sIPSC amplitudes were not increased upon release from halorhodopsin silencing, suggesting that most synapses were not depressed at the spontaneous firing rate. Gramicidin perforated-patch recordings indicated that the average reversal potential of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic potentials was -64 mV. Because of the change in driving force across the ISI, the unitary inputs are predicted to have a larger postsynaptic impact when they arrive late in the ISI. Simulations of network activity suggest that this very sparse inhibitory coupling may act to desynchronize the activity of SNr neurons while having only a small effect on firing rate.

Chronic stress shifts the GABA reversal potential in the hippocampus and increases seizure susceptibility

The most commonly reported precipitating factor for seizures is stress. However, the underlying mechanisms whereby stress triggers seizures are not yet fully understood. Here we demonstrate a potential mechanism underlying changes in neuronal excitability in the hippocampus following chronic stress, involving a shift in the reversal potential for GABA (EGABA) associated with a dephosphorylation of the potassium chloride co-transporter, KCC2. Mice subjected to chronic restraint stress (30min/day for 14 consecutive days) exhibit an increase in serum corticosterone levels which is associated with increased susceptibility to seizures induced with kainic acid (20mg/kg). Following chronic stress, but not acute stress, we observe a dephosphorylation of KCC2 residue S940, which regulates KCC2 cell surface expression and function, in the hippocampus. To determine the impact of alterations in KCC2 expression following chronic stress, we performed gramicidin perforated patch recordings to measure changes in EGABA and neuronal excitability of principal hippocampal neurons. We observe a depolarizing shift in EGABA in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons after chronic stress. In addition, there is an increase in the intrinsic excitability of CA1 pyramidal neurons, evident by a shift in the input-output curve which could be reversed with the NKCC1 inhibitor, bumetanide. These data uncover a potential mechanism involving chronic stress-induced plasticity in chloride homeostasis which may contribute to stress-induced seizure susceptibility.

Depolarizing chloride gradient in developing cochlear nucleus neurons: Underlying mechanism and implication for calcium signaling

Precise regulation of the chloride homeostasis crucially determines the action of inhibitory transmitters GABA and glycine and thereby endows neurons or even discrete neuronal compartments with distinct physiological responses to the same transmitters. In mammals, the signaling mediated by GABAA/glycine receptors shifts during early postnatal life from depolarization to hyperpolarization, due to delayed maturation of the chloride homeostasis system. While the activity of the secondary active, K+-Cl−-extruding cotransporter KCC2, renders GABA/glycine hyperpolarizing in auditory brainstem nuclei of altricial rodents, the mechanisms contributing to the initially depolarizing transmembrane gradient for Cl− in respective neurons remained unknown. Here we used gramicidin-perforated patch recordings, non-invasive Cl− and Ca2+ imaging, and immunohistochemistry to identify the Cl−-loading transporter that renders depolarizing effects of GABA/glycine in early postnatal life of spherical bushy cells in the cochlear nucleus of gerbil. Our data identify the 1Na+:1K+:2Cl− cotransporter 1 (NKCC1) as the major Cl−-loader responsible for depolarizing action of GABA/glycine at postnatal days 3–5 (P3–5). Extracellular GABA/muscimol elicited calcium signaling through R-, L-, and T-type channels, which was dependent on bumetanide- and [Na+]e-sensitive Cl− accumulation. The “adult like”, low intracellular Cl− concentration is established during the second postnatal week, through a mechanism engaging the NKCC1-down regulation between P5 and P15 and ongoing KCC2-mediated Cl−-extrusion.

Activity-dependent hyperpolarization of EGABA is absent in cutaneous DRG neurons from inflamed rats

A shift in GABAA signaling from inhibition to excitation in primary afferent neurons appears to contribute to the inflammation-induced increase in afferent input to the CNS. An activity-dependent depolarization of the GABAA current equilibrium potential (EGABA) has been described in CNS neurons which drives a shift in GABAA signaling from inhibition to excitation. The purpose of the present study was to determine if such an activity-dependent depolarization of EGABA occurs in primary afferents and whether the depolarization is amplified with persistent inflammation. Acutely dissociated retrogradely labeled cutaneous dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons from naïve and inflamed rats were studied with gramicidin perforated patch recording. Rather than a depolarization, 200 action potentials delivered at 2Hz resulted in a ∼10mV hyperpolarization of EGABA in cutaneous neurons from naïve rats. No such hyperpolarization was observed in neurons from inflamed rats. The shift in EGABA was not blocked by 10μM bumetanide. Furthermore, because activity-dependent hyperpolarization of EGABA was fully manifest in the absence of HCO3− in the bath solution, this shift was not dependent on a change in HCO3−–Cl− exchanger activity, despite evidence of HCO3−–Cl− exchangers in DRG neurons that may contribute to the establishment of EGABA in the presence of HCO3−. While the mechanism underlying the activity-dependent hyperpolarization of EGABA has yet to be identified, because this mechanism appears to function as a form of feedback inhibition, facilitating GABA-mediated inhibition of afferent activity, it may serve as a novel target for the treatment of inflammatory pain.

KCC2-dependent subcellular ECl difference of ON-OFF retinal ganglion cells in larval zebrafish

Subcellular difference in the reversal potential of Cl− (ECl) has been found in many types of neurons. As local ECl largely determines the action of nearby GABAergic/glycinergic synapses, subcellular ECl difference can effectively regulate neuronal computation. The ON-OFF retinal ganglion cell (RGC) processes both ON and OFF visual signals via its ON and OFF dendrites, respectively. It is thus interesting to investigate whether the ON and OFF dendrites of single RGCs exhibit different local ECl. Here, using in vivo gramicidin-perforated patch recording in larval zebrafish ON-OFF RGCs, we examine local ECl at the ON and OFF dendrites, and soma through measuring light-evoked ON and OFF inhibitory responses, and GABA-induced response at the soma, respectively. We find there are subcellular ECl differences between the soma and dendrite, as well as between the ON and OFF dendrites of single RGCs. These somato-dendritic and inter-dendritic ECl differences are dependent on the Cl− extruder, K+/Cl− co-transporter (KCC2), because they are largely diminished by down-regulating kcc2 expression with morpholino oligonucleotides (MOs) or by blocking KCC2 function with furosemide. Thus, our findings indicate that there exists KCC2-dependent ECl difference between the ON and OFF dendrites of individual ON-OFF RGCs that may differentially affect visual processing in the ON and OFF pathways.

Bicarbonate efflux via GABAA receptors depolarizes membrane potential and inhibits two‐pore domain potassium channels of astrocytes in rat hippocampal slices

Increasing evidence indicates the functional expression of ionotropic γ-aminobutyric acid receptor (GABA(A) -R) in astrocytes. However, it remains controversial in regard to the intracellular Cl(-) concentration ([Cl(-) ](i) ) and the functional role of anion-selective GABA(A) -R in astrocytes. In gramicidin perforated-patch recordings from rat hippocampal CA1 astrocytes, GABA and GABA(A) -R-specific agonist THIP depolarized astrocyte membrane potential (V(m) ), and the THIP-induced currents reversed at the voltages between -75.3 and -78.3 mV, corresponding to a [Cl(-) ](i) of 3.1-3.9 mM that favored a passive distribution of Cl(-) anions across astrocyte membrane. Further analysis showed that GABA(A) -R-induced V(m) depolarization was ascribed to HCO(3) (-) efflux, while a passively distributed Cl(-) mediated no net flux or influx of Cl(-) that leads to an unchanged or hyperpolarized V(m) . In addition to a rapidly activated GABA(A) -R current component, GABA and THIP also induced a delayed inward current (DIC) in 63% of astrocytes. The DIC became manifest after agonist withdrawal and enhanced in amplitude with increasing agonist application duration or concentrations. Astrocytic two-pore domain K(+) channels (K2Ps), especially TWIK-1, appeared to underlie the DIC, because (1) acidic intracellular pH, as a result of HCO(3) (-) efflux, inhibited TWIK-1, (2) the DIC remained in the Cs(+) recording solutions that inhibited conventional K(+) channels, and (3) the DIC was completely inhibited by 1 mM quinine but not by blockers for other cation/anion channels. Altogether, HCO(3) (-) efflux through activated GABA(A) -R depolarizes astrocyte V(m) and induces a delayed inhibition of K2Ps K(+) channels via intracellular acidification.

Persistent inflammation increases GABA-induced depolarization of rat cutaneous dorsal root ganglion neurons in vitro

Persistent inflammation is associated with a shift in spinal GABAA signaling from inhibition to excitation such that GABAA-receptor activation contributes to inflammatory hyperalgesia. We tested the hypothesis that the primary afferent is the site of the persistent inflammation-induced shift in GABAA signaling which is due to a Na+–K+–Cl−-co-transporter (NKCC1)-dependent depolarization of the GABAA current equilibrium potential (EGABA). Acutely dissociated retrogradely labeled cutaneous dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons from naïve and inflamed (3days after a subcutaneous injection of complete Freund’s adjuvant) adult male rats were studied with Ca2+ imaging, western blot and gramicidin-perforated patch recording. GABA evoked a Ca2+ transient in a subpopulation of small- to medium-diameter capsaicin-sensitive cutaneous neurons. Inflammation was associated with a significant increase in the magnitude of GABA-induced depolarization as well as the percentage of neurons in which GABA evoked a Ca2+ transient. There was no detectable change in NKCC1 protein or phosphoprotein at the whole ganglia level. Furthermore, the increase in excitatory response was comparable in both HEPES- and HCO3--buffered solutions, but was only associated with a depolarization of EGABA in HCO3--based solution. In contrast, under both recording conditions, the excitatory response was associated with an increase in GABAA current density, a decrease in low threshold K+ current density, and resting membrane potential depolarization. Our results suggest that increasing K+ conductance in afferents innervating a site of persistent inflammation may have greater efficacy in the inhibition of inflammatory hyperalgesia than attempting to drive a hyperpolarizing shift in EGABA.

Age-related changes in the effects of 5-hydroxytryptamine on substantia gelatinosa neurons of the trigeminal subnucleus caudalis

The trigeminal subnucleus caudalis (Vc) is the critical brainstem relay site of orofacial nociceptive processing to higher brain centers. The descending serotonergic pathway from the brainstem exerts inhibitory or facilitatory effects on nociceptive transmission in the spinal dorsal horn and the Vc, and SG neurons of the Vc exhibit hyperpolarization, no response or depolarization in response to 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) application. In this study, we examined age-related changes in the effects of 5-HT on SG neurons of the Vc using immature, peripubertal and adult male mice and gramicidin-perforated patch recordings under the current-clamp mode. In the three age groups, hyperpolarization was the major response in SG neurons exhibiting membrane potential changes in response to 5-HT application. The proportion of the SG neurons responding to 5-HT by hyperpolarization was significantly higher in the immature (20/27) than in the adult mice (10/26; P<0.05). The proportion of SG neurons showing no response to 5-HT was significantly higher in the peripubertal (11/21) and the adult mice (13/26) compared with the immature mice (5/27). The amplitude of 5-HT-induced hyperpolarization significantly decreased with increasing postnatal age (correlation coefficient=−0.43, P<0.05). The mean amplitude of 5-HT-induced hyperpolarization was significantly higher in the immature mice (−9.7±1.1mV, n=20) than in the peripubertal (−5.3±1.0mV, n=10) and the adult mice (−5.4±0.9mV, n=10; both P<0.05). These results suggest that the descending serotonergic modulatory influence over the orofacial nociceptive processing in the Vc may change during postnatal development and postnatal age of three weeks is a critical period for changes in 5-HT-induced hyperpolarizing effects in mice.

Bilirubin facilitates depolarizing GABA/glycinergic synaptic transmission in the ventral cochlear nucleus of rats

Excitotoxicity contributes to bilirubin-induced central nervous system injury; however, the mechanisms involved remain controversial. Previous studies from our lab have demonstrated that in juvenile rats bilirubin faciliates γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)/glycinergic synaptic transmission through activation of presynaptic protein kinase A (PKA) in isolated neurons of the ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN). However, the descending mechanism and physiological effects of bilirubin-induced potentiation remain unclear. Here, whole-cell recordings show that 3×10−6M bilirubin increased the frequency of both spontaneous (sPSCs) and miniature (mPSCs) GABA/glycinergic postsynaptic currents in VCN neurons of postnatal day 12–14 (P12–14) rats. This action was dependent on the concentration and duration of exposure to bilirubin and was only partially suppressed by 10−5M bicuculline. The potentiation effect on mPSCs persisted in a Ca2+-free solution, but was fully occluded by pretreatment with 1,2 bis-(2-aminophenoxy) ethane-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid acetoxymethyl ester (BAPTA-AM), an intracellular Ca2+ chelator. Following pretreatment of the neurons with BAPTA-AM, forskolin, a PKA activator, had no effect on the frequency or amplitude of mPSCs. This suggests that Ca2+ release from presynaptic stores is part of the descending pathway of PKA activation and is responsible for biliurbin-induced potentiation of cell activity. Using gramicidin-perforated patch recordings, the reversal potential of GABA-evoked currents (EGABA) was also investigated. The GABA response resulted in depolarization of 12 of 20 recorded VCN neurons from P12–14 rats. Therefore, potentiation of depolarizing GABA/glycinergic transmission by bilirubin may underlie bilirubin excitotoxicity, which may play a role in the hearing impairment observed among hyperbilirubinemic neonates.

Direct and indirect control of orexin/hypocretin neurons by glycine receptors.

Hypothalamic hypocretin/orexin (hcrt/orx) neurons promote arousal and reward seeking, while reduction in their activity has been linked to narcolepsy, obesity and depression. However, the mechanisms influencing the activity of hcrt/orx networks in situ are not fully understood. Here we show that glycine, a neurotransmitter best known for its actions in the brainstem and spinal cord, elicits dose dependent postsynaptic Cl⁻ currents in hcrt/orx cells in acute mouse brain slices. The effect was blocked by the glycine receptor (GLyR) antagonist strychnine and mimicked by the GlyR agonist alanine. Postsynaptic GlyRs on hcrt/orx cells remained functional during both early postnatal and adult periods, and gramicidin-perforated patch-clamp recordings revealed that they progressively switch from excitatory to inhibitory during the first two postnatal weeks. The pharmacological profile of the glycine response suggested that developed hcrt/orx neurons contain α/β-heteromeric GlyRs that lack α2-subunits, whereas α2-subunits, whereas α2-subunits are present in early postnatal hcrt/orx neurons. All postsynaptic currents (PSCs) in developed hcrt/orx cells were blocked by inhibitors of GABA and glutamate receptors, with no evidence of GlyR-mediated PSCs. However, the frequency but not amplitude of miniature PSCs was reduced by strychnine and increased by glycine in ~50% of hcrt/orx neurons. Together, these results provide the first evidence for functional GlyRs in identified hcrt/orx circuits and suggest that the activity of developed hcrt/orx cells is regulated by two GlyR pools: inhibitory extrasynaptic GlyRs located on all hcrt/orx cells and excitatory GlyRs located on presynaptic terminals contacting some hcrt/orx cells.

Robust tonic GABA currents can inhibit cell firing in mouse newborn neocortical pyramidal cells

Within the hippocampus and neocortex, GABA is considered to be excitatory in early development due to a relatively depolarized Cl(-) reversal potential (E(Cl)). Although the depolarizing nature of synaptic GABAergic events has been well established, it is unknown whether cortical tonic currents mediated by extrasynaptically located GABA(A) receptors (GABA(A) Rs) are also excitatory. Here we examined the development of tonic currents in the neocortex and their effect on neuronal excitability. Mean tonic current, recorded from layer 5 (L5) pyramidal cells of the mouse somatosensory cortex, is robust in newborns [postnatal day (P)2-4] then decreases dramatically by the second postnatal week (P7-10 and P30-40). Pharmacological studies, in combination with Western blot analysis, show that neonatal tonic currents are partially mediated by the GABA(A) R α5 subunit, and probably the δ subunit. In newborns, the charge due to tonic current accounts for nearly 100% of the total GABA charge, a contribution that decreases to < 50% in mature tissue. Current clamp recordings show that tonic current contributes to large fluctuations in the membrane potential that may disrupt its stability. Bath application of 5 μM GABA, to induce tonic currents, markedly decreased cell firing frequency in most recorded cells while increasing it in others. Gramicidin perforated patch recordings show heterogeneity in E(Cl) recorded from P2-5 L5 pyramidal cells. Together, these findings demonstrate that tonic currents activated by low GABA concentrations can dominate GABAergic transmission in newborn neocortical pyramidal cells and that tonic currents can exert heterogeneous effects on neuronal excitability.

Enhanced Excitatory Input to Melanin Concentrating Hormone Neurons during Developmental Period of High Food Intake Is Mediated by GABA

In contrast to the local axons of GABA neurons of the cortex and hippocampus, lateral hypothalamic neurons containing melanin concentrating hormone (MCH) and GABA send long axons throughout the brain and play key roles in energy homeostasis and mental status. In adults, MCH neurons maintain a hyperpolarized membrane potential and most of the synaptic input is inhibitory. In contrast, we found that developing MCH neurons received substantially more excitatory synaptic input. Based on gramicidin-perforated patch recordings in hypothalamic slices from MCH-green fluorescent protein transgenic mice, we found that GABA was the primary excitatory synaptic transmitter in embryonic and neonatal ages up to postnatal day 10. Surprisingly, glutamate assumed only a minor excitatory role, if any. GABA plays a complex role in developing MCH neurons, with its actions conditionally dependent on a number of factors. GABA depolarization could lead to an increase in spikes either independently or in summation with other depolarizing stimuli, or alternately, depending on the relative timing of other depolarizing events, could lead to shunting inhibition. The developmental shift from depolarizing to hyperpolarizing occurred later in the dendrites than in the cell body. Early GABA depolarization was based on a Cl(-)-dependent inward current. An interesting secondary depolarization in mature neurons that followed an initial hyperpolarization was based on a bicarbonate mechanism. Thus during the early developmental period when food consumption is high, MCH neurons are more depolarized than in the adult, and an increased level of excitatory synaptic input to these orexigenic cells is mediated by GABA.

Regular firing of a single output neuron reduces its own inhibition through endocannabinoids in substantia nigra pars reticulata of juvenile mice

Depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition in substantia nigra pars reticulata suggests that burst-like activity but not regular firing suffices to activate presynaptic endocannabinoid CB1 receptors. To more closely determine the type of activity required, we applied gramicidin perforated patch recording under visual control to substantia nigra slices of juvenile mice. We found that evoked inhibitory postsynaptic currents (eIPSCs) were reduced in amplitude by the spontaneous firing of a neuron under study, whereas silencing this neuron enhanced inhibitory responses. Autonomous firing reduced eIPSCs to 78%±2% in a time- but not frequency-dependent manner. The phenomenon which we termed firing-induced suppression of inhibition was cannabinoid receptor subtype 1–dependent, whereas adenosine A1 receptors played only a minor role. Depletion of intracellular Ca2+ stores abolished the firing-induced suppression of inhibition suggesting that Ca2+ release from internal stores is necessary for the production of endocannabinoids during autonomous firing. We suggest that the Ca2+ influx during autonomous activity of pars reticulata neurons suffices to selectively dampen incoming inhibition from striatal neurons because it is amplified by ryanodine receptor-mediated Ca2+ release from intracellular stores.