Governor Dead Band Research Articles

Enhanced Frequency/Voltage Control in Multi-Source Power System Using CES and SSA-Optimized Cascade TID-FOPTID Controller

The stability and reliability of modern power systems, especially those with several renewable energy sources, strongly rely on load frequency control (LFC) and automatic voltage regulation (AVR) for frequency and voltage control under inconstant load demands. In this study, a new cascade tilt integral derivative-fractional order proportional tilt integral derivative (TID-FOPTID) controller is presented that is polished through the salp swarm algorithm (SSA) for LFC of a multi-area power system with AVR in all control areas. The system integrates capacitive energy storage (CES) and deals with governor dead-band and generation rate constraint nonlinear effects in a thermal-hydro-gas three-area multi-source power system (TAMSPS). The analysis of results, due to the SSA-based TID-FOPTID controller compared to TID-FOTID and TID-FOTID + 1 shows a positive outcome. Integrating CES brings additional improvement in the system performance, the overshoot/undershoot, and settling time are minimized. Finally, the sensitivity analysis reveals that the suggested controller will be effective and reliable for enhancing the frequency stability of the complex power system with a high RES integration level.

Robust [formula omitted] control for LFC of discrete T–S fuzzy MAPS with DFIG and time-varying delays

The H∞ LFC control problem for a class of nonlinear power systems with time-varying delays is under study. Considering uncertainties arising from nonlinear issues such as the generation rate constraint (GRC) and governor dead band (GDB), as well as the high variability of renewable energy sources like wind power, the model is transformed into a discrete-time Takagi–Sugeno (T–S) fuzzy model with parameter uncertainty. By constructing a Lyapunov–Krasovskii functional, and employing difference inequalities and generalized cross-convex matrix inequalities, sufficient conditions for the asymptotic stability of power systems are provided. Based on the obtained conditions, a controller is designed to ensure the asymptotic stability of Multi-Area Power Systems (MAPS), with the performance index being H∞. Finally, simulation results demonstrate the correctness and effectiveness of the theorem.

Chaos quasi-opposition crayfish based modified new controller designed for hybrid deregulated power environment considering cyber-attack

Frequency security is critical to the stability and dependability of the electrical systems. The integration of renewable energy resources presents new challenges for power networks and frequency security. In order to provide a more reliable control mechanism for improved frequency regulation in multi area deregulated environments with penetrations of renewable energy sources like Solar photovoltaic and wind system has been included considering along with its intermitance nature. Additionally, to get more realistic approach and its analysis, nonlinearities such as generation rate constant and governor dead band has been taken into consideration for the anticipated Load Frequency Control (LFC). A novel modified cascaded Dual-Loop Linear Active Disturbance Rejection based Tilted controller has been proposed for the suggested LFC paradigm. A modified version of the Chaotic Quasi-Opposition Crayfish Optimisation algorithm (CQOCOA) has been offered as a novel optimization approach for optimal parameters of the proposed controller. ITSE has been taken as objective function for optimization purpose. Moreover, a comprehensive detailed examination for the proposed LFC system has been investigated and successfully implemented. The performance has been examined under a variety of operating scenarios, including multiple-step, random load disturbances and Distributed Generation (DG) analysis along with its technical core advancements. This study has been investigated and validated over large multi area power system i.e., IEEE-118 bus system. This work also put forward the deep analysis and implementation of learning-based attack detection and mitigation method for the grid's frequency regulation with cyber-physical model. The effectiveness of the proposed controller has been compared and verified over previous published literature work of international repute. The compressive results analysis provide strong evidence in favour of effectiveness and efficacy of the proposed control methodology. Furthermore, this work also suggests its potential to implement in hybrid multi area power system for enhancing the performance and stability in deregulated power structure.

OPTIMAL LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL OF INTERLINKED NONLINEAR POWER SYSTEM INTEGRATED WITH SMES-TCSC AND HVDC

In this article Multi-Area Multi-Source Interconnected Power System (MAMS-IPS) incorporated with an Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) in both the areas is considered for Load Frequency Control (LFC) study. Nonlinearity such as Governor Rate Constraints (GRC), Governor Dead Band (GDB), and Boiler are introduced with the thermal reheat generating unit. The effect of energy storage device (SMES) and fact device (TCSC) on the dynamic responses of IPS is also tested. PD-PID controller is suggested along with PID/PI-PD controller for minimizing the Automatic Control Error (ACE). The parameters of the proposed controller are optimized through a nature-inspired algorithm (PSO). PD-PID is superior then other suggested PID/PI-PD controllers. Objective functions ITAE, IAE, ISE, and ITSE are taken into consideration for finding the optimized values of the suggested controller as well as of TCSC and SMES devices. A step load of 10% is applied in both IPS areas. The rigidness of the suggested controller is verified by varying the loading condition of the IPS. A 10% increment in step load form is introduced for each area. The effect of renewable energy sources such as solar and a wind unit is also taken into consideration in this article. Varying step input is applied to this renewable unit to absorb its effect on the output responses of MAMS-IPS. The superiority of the PD-PID controller is verified by comparing its result with the recently published optimal controllers results described in the literature. SMES helps in improving the dynamic responses of the MAMS-IPS. Based on performance indices and Settling-time (ST) results of proposed controllers are compared with each other. For commenting on the stability of the introduced Power system (PS) eigenvalue analysis is also conducted. MATLAB version 2018 @ simulation software is used for simulation and for creating .m files

Frequency stabilization in microgrid with PV system based on maximum power extraction: A sliding mode approach

The article addresses the critical issue of frequency regulation in microgrids (MG) integrated with solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, which rely on maximum power point tracking (MPPT) using sliding mode control (SMC). The frequency stability of MGs is a significant concern due to the inherent variability of renewable energy sources, making frequency regulation challenging. This research proposes a dual-objective control strategy. Firstly, it ensures the solar PV system maximizes power extraction via a buck-boost converter controlled by SMC. Simultaneously, it maintains frequency regulation in the MG under load disturbances using SMC. The SMC technique guarantees precise convergence to the maximum power operating point and minimizes frequency deviations in the MG. The proposed solution demonstrates effective maximum power extraction under varying irradiance levels and reliable frequency regulation despite system parameter uncertainties and nonlinearities such as generation rate constraints (GRC) and governor deadband (GDB). Additionally, the SMC-based design achieves faster convergence compared to traditional proportional-integral (PI) controllers optimized using intelligent techniques. Stability analysis, performed using Bode and Nyquist plots, further confirms the robustness of the proposed system. The model was developed and tested in the MATLAB Simulink environment, showcasing its efficacy and reliability.

Robust Fuzzy-PID Technique for the Automatic Generation Control of Interconnected Power System with Integrated Renewable Energy Sources

This paper proposes a robust hybrid fuzzy PID controller, with the PID gain values tuned using the particle swarm optimization (PSO) technique for the automatic generation control (AGC) of the two-area hybrid power system. PSO Algorithm is applied to reduce the integral of time-weighted absolute error (ITAE) of the frequency and tie-line power variations of the two-area interconnected power system. The suggested method’s efficacy is examined on an interconnected two-area power system with Area 1 containing thermal reheat plants, hydropower plants, and diesel generating units, and Area 2 comprising thermal reheat plants and renewable energy sources (RES): wind energy conversion system, solar photovoltaic system, and electric vehicles. The thermal reheat power plants are modelled taking into consideration the governor dead band (GDB) and the generation rate constraints (GRC). The performance of the presented controller is compared with the genetic algorithm-optimized PID AGC and the PSO-optimised PID AGC. The simulation outcomes show superior results of the proposed controller against other controllers. Further, sensitivity analysis reflects that the proposed technique provides better dynamic response and robustness than the other techniques.

Optimally tuned cascaded FOPI-FOPIDN with improved PSO for load frequency control in interconnected power systems with RES

In the operation and control of power systems, load frequency control (LFC) plays a critical role in ensuring the stability and reliability of interconnected power systems. Modern power systems with significant penetration of highly variable and intermittent renewable sources present new challenges that make traditional control strategies ineffective. To address these new challenges, this paper proposes a novel LFC strategy that employs a cascaded fractional-order proportional integral-fractional-order proportional integral derivative with a derivative filter (FOPI-FOPIDN) as a controller. The parameters of the FOPI-FOPIDN are optimised using a variant of the particle swarm optimization (PSO) in the literature called ADIWACO. The effectiveness and scalability of the proposed strategy are validated by extensive simulations conducted on two- and three-area test systems and performance comparisons with recent LFC control strategies in the literature. The performance metrics used for the evaluation are ITAE values, deviations in the power flows in the tie-lines, and deviations in the frequencies of the control areas with the power systems subjected to diverse load and RES generation disturbances in several experimental scenarios. Governor dead band, communication time delay, and generation rate constraints are considered in one of the scenarios for more realistic evaluation. Again, the controller’s robustness to uncertain model parameters is validated by varying the parameters of the three-area test system by ± 50%. The simulation results obtained confirm the controller’s robustness and its superiority over the comparison LFC strategies in terms of the above performance metrics.

LFC performance advancement of two-area RES penetrated multi-source power system utilizing CES and a new CFOTID controller

This study addresses the challenges of load fluctuations and the assimilation of renewable energy sources (RES) causing undesirable frequency deviations. To avoid widespread deviations in frequency, an intelligent, competent and robust load frequency control (LFC) scheme and energy storage system are obligatory for disturbance rejection in RES penetrated realistic interconnected multi-source power system (IMSPS). Hence, a new cascade fractional order tilt integral derivative (CFOTID) controller is suggested with capacitive energy storage (CES) for a pragmatic RES based thermal-hydro-gas IMSPS having governor dead-band and generation rate constraint nonlinearities. The salp swarm algorithm (SSA) is utilized successfully for fine-tuning of the controller parameters. Scrutiny of the outcome results reveals the sovereignty of the CFOTID controller over several existing well proven controllers and SSA-based FOTID. It is observed that power generation due to CES further advance the system results in terms of minimized overshoot, undershoot, and settling time. Lastly, a sensitivity analysis is conducted to confirm the robustness of the controller.

Optimal Tuning of PID Controllers for LFC in Renewable Energy Source Integrated Power Systems Using an Improved PSO

The constant rise in energy demand and concerns about climate change have led to increased penetration of renewable energy sources (RES). Maintaining active power balance between generation and demand in power systems with significant penetration of these highly variable and intermittent renewable sources requires an efficient load frequency control (LFC) strategy. One such strategy that has gained the attention of researchers is optimal tuning of PID controllers of LFC using metaheuristic method. This paper presents a PSO variant for optimal tuning of PID controllers for load frequency control of power system integrated with renewable energy resources. The proposed PID tuning technique is tested on a two-area power system commonly used in the literature. Seven scenarios have been used to validate the effectiveness of the proposed Load Frequency Control. For more realistic evaluation, governor dead band and communication time delays have been incorporated in the test system in one of the scenarios. Simulation results obtained when compared with those of three well-known PID-tuning metaheuristic algorithms produced shorter settling time and smaller frequency and tie line power deviations.

Application of Pattern Search Algorithm based Automatic Generation Control of an Interconnected Power System

This paper demonstrates the advantage of the selection of the Pattern Search algorithm (PS) in the design of a Proportional-Integral controller used in Automatic Generation Control for a two area non-reheat interconnected thermal system. The design problem involves the implementation of PS algorithm to find out the value of parameters of the controller of the proposed power system. Here we have implemented three objective functions by using ITAE, damping ratio of dominant eigenvalues and settling time with weight coefficients for the design problem to get an optimized parameter of the Proportional Integral controller. The robustness of the designed PI controller using the Pattern search algorithm has been demonstrated after comparing other PI controllers using various optimization techniques like Genetic Algorithm, Bacteria Foraging Optimization Algorithm for the system under study. Further, best objective function uses the PS optimization algorithm in PI/PID controller parameters, tunning is obtained in presence of physical constraints like governor dead band non linearity of the proposed two area power system. The modified model to test the sensitivity analysis of PI/PID controller by using different loading condition to show the PID controller performance of frequency and tie line power deviation improved better as compared to the PI controller of the same power system. Further, it is extended to multi-area multi-source power for effectiveness and robustness of the system under different disturbances to check the transient stability.

Hybrid cyber-attack compensation of sustainable microgrid using active disturbance rejection control strategy

A modified active disturbance rejection control (ADRC) strategy for the frequency regulation of sustainable microgrid against hybrid cyber-attacks is proposed in this paper. The proposed technique mitigates the effect of attacks which in turn regulates the frequency of microgrid. The sustainable microgrid consists of solar and wind as renewable energy sources, energy storage systems (ESSs) like battery ESS and flywheel ESS, and controllable sources of energy like fuel cell and diesel generator. The cyber-attacks such as false data injection, denial-of-service and time delay attack are considered for designing the proposed ADRC technique. The robustness of the microgrid system with the proposed controller is investigated by varying generation and load, stochastic nature of attacks, parametric uncertainties and generation rate constraint and governor dead band nonlinearities. Further, the stability analysis of the microgrid with proposed ADRC is investigated under the aforementioned cyber-attacks using the small gain theorem.

A robust control approach integrating with optimal fuel cells to strengthen the frequency stability of a diverse-sources power system including renewables

In the current power landscape, renewable energy sources (RESs) have assumed a crucial role in satisfying consumer demand. However, as the deployment of renewables increases, certain challenges arise, including issues with system frequency stability, inertia, and damping reduction. To address these concerns, an innovative approach is suggested in this study. The proposed strategy aims to maintain frequency stability in a diverse-source power system that encompasses two interconnected regions incorporating RESs. The proposed strategy comprises a new multi-degree of freedom FOTID controller known as the MDOF-TIλDμN controller in the secondary control loop (SCL) and optimally controlled fuel cells (OFCL) to enhance the system’s stability under the effect of renewable energy (RESs) fluctuations. In this context, the gains of the considered strategy (optimal MDOF-TIλDμN in addition to OFCL) have been picked out by using an innovative optimization approach known as the Capuchin search algorithm (CapSA). The statistical tests are used to examine the efficacy of the considered CapSA compared to those of other optimization strategies utilized in previous studies. Furthermore, the performance of the proposed controller in the SCL is verified by contrasting its performance with that of another suggested controller known as MDOF-PIDN as well as other controllers such as PD-IT, PDμN-IλT, 2DOF-TIλDμN, 3DOF-PIDN, 3DOF-TIDN, and 3DOF-PIλDμN. Additionally, grid nonlinearities, including Boiler Dynamics, Generation Rate Constraint, Governor Dead Band, and random communication time delay (CTD), are considered. Moreover, the proposed strategy’s performance is verified in the face of system constraints and nonlinearities. Different scenarios are implemented, and the simulation outcomes emphasize the superior performance of the suggested strategy. Therefore, the suggested strategy provides consistent power system adoption wherever it is implemented.

An effective cascade control strategy for frequency regulation of renewable energy based hybrid power system with energy storage system

Frequency deviations occur when load frequency control(LFC) is incompetent to bridge the gap between supply and demand. Thus, this paper presents the effective (1 + TD)-TID cascade regulator to this significant field. The regulator is efficient to execute, and it interfaces the yield of 1 + TD regulator with all the inputs of TID regulator. Here, the power deviation of tie-line and frequency are employed to the TID regulator, which is referred to as the feedback signals. An imperialist competitive algorithm (ICA) is employed for tuning the controller design variables. The primary aim of this study is to examine the LFC issue and further exploration of 2 area thermal systems coordinated with renewable energy sources (RES) like solar PV, wind, and fuel cell with nonlinearities like governor dead band (DB) unit; reheat based turbine, and the generation rate constraints (GRC). The efficacy the of proposed control strategy are investigated in contrast with those of other common works, which disclose not only its simple structure but also, the ICA enhanced (1 + TD)-TID technique gives the smallest values of the performance index (0.091) compare to TIDF (0.372), PIDF (0.467) and least settling time (24.7 s) in contrast to TID (22.8 s) and PIDF (10s). Hence proposed control strategy shows efficient response with lesser oscillations and fast response. The sturdiness of suggested controller is also corroborated with nonlinearities and parameter variations of ±25% . The examination has been additionally improved by integrating a redox flow battery (RFB) in the proposed framework.

A Novel PSO-Based Modified SMC for Designing Robust Load-Frequency Control Strategies

In an electric power grid, Load-Frequency Control (LFC) plays a crucial role as it aims to maintain the system frequency at a nominal value, 50 or 60 Hz, by minimizing the effects of load changes. However, a modern power system is currently characterized by a huge number of nonlinearities and uncertainties, making control methodologies much more challenging. Among them, the nonlinear features of Governor Dead-Band (GDB) and Generation Rate Constraint (GRC) strongly affect the accuracy and performance of LFC applied to a power network. This study focused on designing an applicable and efficient LFC by proposing a novel Sliding-Mode Control (SMC) scheme. The traditional SMC can successfully solve several nonlinear control problems, and in case of having a reasonable adjustment, it is completely suitable to design the LFC strategy. The modified SMC, integrated with an effective optimization technique, i.e., Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), can dramatically improve the performance of LFC. This paper presents numerical simulation results implemented in MATLAB/Simulink to demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed control strategy.

Load Frequency Control by Quadratic Regulator Approach with Compensating Pole using SIMULINK

In this research, for the load frequency control (LFC) challenge, we provide a few possible approaches to building an optimum PID controller. This scheme employs the Quadratic Regulator Approach with Compensating Pole (QRAWCP) approach. In both multi-area and single-area power systems, this control law is used to solve load frequency concerns. And the other scenario that is considerable, the controller's robustness is evaluated on the same systems in terms of non-linearities, external disturbances, and parametric uncertainty such as the Governor Dead Band (GDB) as well as the Generation Rate Constraint (GRC). The performance of the control method is evaluated using Simulink simulations.

Improved load frequency control in power systems with high penetration of wind farms using robust fuzzy controller

In highly penetrated wind power systems, similar to conventional units, wind farms must contribute to the frequency control task. This paper develops a model for load-frequency control (LFC) considering the participation of wind farms. Some well-known nonlinear physical constraints, i.e., time delay, generation rate constraint (GRC), and governor dead-band (GDB), which lead the system toward instability, are considered in the obtained model. Based on the obtained model, some control strategies are suggested to realize the participation of wind farms in the LFC task. First, the Mamdani fuzzy control approach is applied to improve the frequency behaviour of the power system in case of disturbance occurrence. However, this controller is unable to perform well against the aforementioned physical constraints. To solve this issue, a smart fuzzy controller is finally proposed to obtain maximum functionality against involved nonlinear constraints. To show the superiority of designed compensators, some simulations are carried out in the MATLAB/SIMULINK software to compare the performance of the suggested controller. Studies confirm the efficiency and high accuracy of proposed algorithms.

Load frequency control in three-area single unit power system considering non-linearities effect

Load frequency control is always a crucial aspect in delivering quality power in integrated power system. This paper proposes an optimally tuned Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller to remove frequency errors caused by unexpected load fluctuations while ensuring tie-line power exchange. Moreover, the threearea power system with non-linearities such as Generation Rate Constraint and Governor Dead Band has been investigated. For tuning the parameters of PID controller Improved Grey Wolf Optimization (IGWO) has been used. The dynamic response of optimized PID controller have been compared with the result obtained from Genetic Algorithm (GA), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), and Sine Cosine Algorithm (SCA).

Optimal self-tuning fractional order fuzzy load frequency control considering sustainable energy sources and electric vehicle

Considering uncertainties associated with sustainable energy sources in modern power systems, one of the main obstacles for load frequency control (LFC) is that various publications regard the parameters of FOPID controllers as fixed after optimisation. To tackle this challenge, an adaptive control structure may be a viable option for LFC. In this paper, in a two-zone hybrid power system that includes a thermal power plant, green energy sources, fuel cells, and plug-in electric vehicles, an optimal self-tuning fractional order fuzzy (OSTFOF) controller for LFC is proposed. Pathfinder algorithm (PFA) has been utilised for optimal tuning of parameters of the OSTFOF controller, including the upper bands of output membership functions, the input scaling factors, and the order of integral and derivative operators. In the proposed controller, the values of proportional, integral, and derivative gains are adaptively obtained. In the thermal power plant, non-linear factors, such as governor dead band (GDB) and generation rate constraint (GRC), are considered. Four different scenarios have been considered to evaluate the performance of the proposed OSTFOF controller, and results have been compared with PI, PID, and FOPID controllers. The simulations’ results indicate the excellent performance indices of the suggested OSTFOF controller compared to other controllers.

Application of a TID Controller for the LFC of a Multi Area System using HGS Algorithm

A Tilt Integral Derivative (TID) controller is designed in this paper for the Load Frequency Control (LFC) issue of a multi-area interconnected restructured power system. The suggested TID controller settings are fine-tuned using a novel optimization technique known as Hunger Games Search (HGS) algorithm. A multi-area interconnected power system with various generating units is used to test the performance of the proposed TID controller based on HGS. The suggested controller also takes into account system non-linearities such as Generation Rate Constraints (GRCs) and Governor Dead Band (GDB). The superiority of HGS's optimization over a range of other significant optimization techniques, such as the grey-wolf optimization algorithm, has been confirmed. The simulation results show that the proposed TID controller based on HGS improves system frequency stability significantly under a variety of load perturbation scenarios.

Squirrel search algorithm based intelligent controller for interconnected power system

ABSTRACT In this paper, a novel controller, namely fractional order fuzzy proportional-integral-derivative (FOFPID) has been proposed for the dual area power system of hydro-thermal-gas units (DAHTG). The squirrel search algorithm (SSA) is implemented to achieve the optimal values of the controller tuning parameters. Further, various non-linearity constraints, such as governor dead band (GDB), generation rate constraint (GRC) and communication time delays (CTDs) have also been considered to test the effectiveness of the proposed controller in a real-time environment. The step load of 10% is provided as the disturbance under the regulation. In addition, the coordinated strategy of a static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) device and superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) is employed in the proposed system to enhance the system’s performance. Further, the accuracy, effectiveness and robustness of the proposed controller are revealed through the comparative analysis with classical PID and traditional fuzzy PID controllers. Furthermore, presented controller efficacy is revealed with the other recently reported control techniques by implementing it on the two-area thermal system with GDB. The comparative analysis shows the better performance of the proposed controller than these two. Finally, the sensitivity analysis is performed to check the controller robustness.