Good Agronomic Practices Research Articles

Sustainable management of chickpea pod borer. A review

The pod borer [Helicoverpa armigera Hubner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)] is responsible for causing up to 90% damage in chickpea due to its regular occurrence from the vegetative growth to the pod formation stage. In order to manage this problem, growers are tempted to increase the amounts of pesticides, but indiscriminate or injudicious use of pesticides has resulted in residues in the food chain, pesticide resistance, and pest resurgence, in addition to causing harm to non-targeted beneficial organisms and the environment. Here, we reviewed the sustainable approaches to reduce the incidence of pod borer and achieve sustainability in chickpea production systems through the adoption of an integrated approach involving host plant resistance, good agronomic practices, and judicious use of chemical and biological methods. We found that the following major points have been reported to reduce the survival and damage of pod borer: (1) use of resistant varieties (the cheapest and the best method of pod borer management); (2) implementing a number of good agronomic practices, such as early sowing with optimum planting density and fertilizer levels, including inter/trap crops (coriander, mustard, linseed, sunflower, sorghum, and marigold) and installing animated bird perches and T-perches at 2 m distance of predatory zones; and (3) monitoring pod borer through pheromone traps (which is also necessary to understand the major factors influencing pest population and to make the pest control program more effective). Integrating all of these approaches with biological control has shown some encouraging results for sustainable pod borer management and has resulted in high chickpea yields. This review highlights examples of successful management approaches from past studies that were implemented in experimental and farmers’ fields. These approaches can be explored as reproducible practices for managing the pest in locations with similar H. armigera concerns. We conclude that an integrated approach is most effective for long-term sustainable management programs.

Value chain development for mango (Mangifera indica) around Outamba Kilimi National Park in Sierra Leone: constraints and opportunities for smallholders

BackgroundMango is an important tree fruit in Sierra Leone since it participates to food and nutritional security mainly in rural areas. However, the economic potential of this tree fruit is still untapped to a large extent. This situation is due to high loss and poor handling at post-harvest stage preventing farmers from meeting the quality standard for different markets. The aims of this paper were to analyse the constrains and opportunities for mango value chain development, as well as community-based copping strategies developed by chain actors to valorise the existing opportunities for better market development and forest conservation.MethodsData were collected in four sites around the Outamba Kilimi National Park, Sierra Leone, through focus group discussions with men and women groups of 25–35 mango value chain actors in each site.ResultsResults indicated that mango value chain is composed of nursery suppliers, mango producers, harvesters and assemblers, processors and traders. Main constraints encountered by both men and women are lack of: (1) polythene bags and improved mango seedlings, mineral fertilisers, herbicides, pesticide, (2) training on appropriate mango production practices, (3) appropriate harvesting tools, (4) appropriate processing knowledge and equipment, as well as high transportation cost. Hand weeding, use of available organic fertiliser, seeking of advices from colleagues farmers, equipment from other processors who own local processing equipment were some of the coping strategies developed by various actors along mango value chains. Soil fertility, favourable climatic conditions, technical and financial support from direct or indirect actors through training on good agronomic practices, processing and marketing techniques, availability of hired labour to perform farming and processing operations, existence of local processing plant to serve as outlet for fresh mango were identified as main factors to be exploited to improve mango value chains around Outamba Kilimi National Park in Sierra Leone.ConclusionsOur results provided insight into the various factors limiting the performance of mango value chains around Outamba Kilimi National Park in Sierra Leone. This baseline study will help in designing and implementing appropriate strategies to promote mango value chains in the areas around the Outamba Kilimi National Park.

Sustainable recommendation domains for scaling agricultural technologies in Tanzania

Low adoption of sustainable intensification technologies hinders achievement of their potential impacts on increasing agricultural productivity. Proper targeting of locations to scale-out particular technologies is a key determinant of the rate of adoption. Targeting locations with similar biophysical and socio-economic characteristics significantly increases the probability of adoption. Areas with similar biophysical and socio-economic characteristics are referred to as recommendation domains (RDs). This study used geospatial analysis to delineate sustainable recommendation domains (SRDs) for scaling improved crop varieties and good agronomic practices in Tanzania. The study uses K-means clustering to identify relatively similar clusters from grid raster’s representing biophysical and socio-economic environments. Critical ecosystems are masked-out from the clusters to generate the SRDs. The potential impacts of scaling technologies in the generated SRDs were assessed and a spatial targeting index developed. Results identify 20 SRDs and the bio-socio-economic gradients that delineate them. This study proposes an Impact Based Spatial Targeting Index (IBSTI) as an objective tool for priority setting when scaling agricultural technologies. IBSTI identified priority areas within each SRD that should be targeted to maximize potential impacts of a scaling intervention. The data-driven clustering method is recommended for regions with limited technology trials. Results demonstrate the potential of geospatial tools in generating evidence-based policies on scaling of sustainable intensification technologies.

Fungal Biofilms: Targets for the Development of Novel Strategies in Plant Disease Management.

The global food supply has been facing increasing challenges during the first decades of the 21st century. Disease in plants is an important constraint to worldwide crop production, accounting for 20–40% of its annual harvest loss. Although the use of resistant varieties, good water management and agronomic practices are valid management tools in counteracting plant diseases, there are still many pathosystems where fungicides are widely used for disease management. However, restrictive regulations and increasing concern regarding the risk to human health and the environment, along with the incidence of fungicide resistance, have discouraged their use and have prompted for a search for new efficient, ecologically friendly and sustainable disease management strategies. The recent evidence of biofilm formation by fungal phytopathogens provides the scientific framework for designing and adapting methods and concepts developed by biofilm research that could be integrated in IPM practices. In this perspective paper, we provide evidence to support the view that the biofilm lifestyle plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of plant diseases. We describe the main factors limiting the durability of single-site fungicides, and we assemble the current knowledge on pesticide resistance in the specific context of the biofilm lifestyle. Finally, we illustrate the potential of antibiofilm compounds at sub-lethal concentrations for the development of an innovative, eco-sustainable strategy to counteract phytopathogenic fungi. Such fungicide-free solutions will be instrumental in reducing disease severity, and will permit more prudent use of fungicides decreasing thus the selection of resistant forms and safeguarding the environment.

Role of Agricultural Mechanization Technologies in Transforming Agriculture: The Case of Wheat Row Planter in Ethiopia

Wheat is one of the major staple food crops in many parts of Ethiopia covering about 11% of total land cultivated and production share of 17% of total cereals. However, land productivity is found to be among the lowest in the country from the world which is about 2.01tons/ha. To increase this lowest productivity, among all others, good agronomic practices is the most important and to facilitate this practice row planting was the one major action to be taken by farmers. But even though farmers were convinced to practice row planting, absence of appropriate technology was the most bottlenecks for development. To overcome the problem considerable researchers and individuals were engaged to development and adaptation of wheat row planters. However, before the embark of mass production and wider dissemination of the technologies, technical viability and socioeconomic feasibility of the technologies and selection of the best out of the options was found to be crucial activity. Therefore, this research activity was initiated to verify available prototypes for wheat row planting and recommend suitable ones for further demonstration and scaling up. Accordingly, seven row planters were collected from different sources in the country and on field evaluation were conducted in Tiyo district, Arsi zone with the presence of FRG during the major activities like planting, cultivation/weeding and harvesting and threshing. All necessary data from planting to harvest was collected. In addition to these different field days were organized to incorporate farmers’ and experts’ comments to strengthen the field data. Farmers’ preferences, technical viability and economic data analysis using partial budgeting technique and Gross Social Return were assessed and OARI-AAMRC type wheat row planter was ranked superior to others in all aspects.

Formal and informal seed potato supply systems analysis in Rwanda

Potato production in Rwanda is constantly increasing and represents an important food and cash source for farmers. The potato crop together with maize, wheat, rice, beans and cassava is one of the six priorities crops on which the Crop intensification Program(CIP) is focusing since 2007. Its production is mainly located at high altitudes in the Northern and Western provinces. The Nyabihu, Musanze, Rubavu and Burera districts, due to their favorableclimatic conditions, are the 4 most productive districts,accountingforabout 60% of the national potato production. However, because of the low quality seed use by farmers andlow soilhealth, yields remain low with 11.6 t/ha. The aim of the study was to understand the current situation ofthe formal and informal potato seed supply systemin Rwanda.The study was conductedin the Nyabihu, Musanze, Rubavu and Burera districts from the end of June to the end of September 2016. In order to gather agronomic and socio-economic information,qualitative and quantitative data were collected using 3 social science instruments: formal-informal interviews and expert interviews. Currently, the private sector is the principal actor involved in mini-tubersproduction having a market share of 71%,while the public one has a 29% share. The actual mini-tubersproduction could cover between 13% to30% of the actual Rwandan national demand. However, due to a potato seed leak along the certification process and to a lack of actors who multiplylower seed categories into upper ones, the same figure is not reflected into the actual production of certified seed, which represents5% of the national required demand. Potato cultivation representsthe largest household income source for the sectors with the highest potatoes production levels in the region.In fact, it generates57% of the average gross income per yearper household, which is equal to 621,750 FRw (731 USD). Farmers obtain potato seed from four main sources: his/her own harvest, other farmers, the local markets and the formal seed sector. The large majority (85%) is not able to keep their own seed each season. Indeed, only15% always keeps at least a small part of their potato seed and the remaining quantity is bought off-farm when necessary. On average, the off-farm purchase is done in 57% of the cases showing a high dependency on the off-farm seed sources. Moreover, farmers use certified seed in few cases (3%), because of their unawareness of the certified seed presence in the market, the high price, the low seed availability along with the unwillingness to buy certified seed. Withthe goal of increasing the seed quality among farmers, it is recommended to introduceorextend the utilization of good agronomic practices,positive selection, plot techniques and the use of certified seed. Aiming at increasing the certified seed quantities, primarily we recommend to optimize the current multiplication process by improving the current agricultural practices and by increasing the multiplication bodies exclusively involved in the last certification phases. Only when the last phases are well organized, the mini-tubersproduction can be increased by augmenting the screen housesnumber and/or their exploitation rate. In conclusion, in order to supply Rwandan farmers with high quality seed, the formal and informal systems must be complementary and mutually dependent. The certified seed production must be combined with the development of strong and target linkages (e.g. Farmer Field School) along with the informal seed sector. The promotion of integrated-participative approaches in breeding, seed production and distribution would help increasethe complementarity between the two systems.

Effect of Fertilizer and Rhizobium Inoculation on Growth and Yield of Soyabean Variety (Glycine max L. Merrill)

The study assessed the response of three soybean varieties: (TGX 1740 - 2F, TGX 1842 - IE, and TGX 1448- 2E) to three fertilizer treatments (4 t/ha compost, 30 kgN/ha urea, 2 t/ha compost+30 kgN/ha urea and a control) with or without Rhizobium Inoculation using strain R.25B+2180A. The experiment was a randomized complete block design with three replications. Data collected on vegetative, reproductive and grain yield parameters were subjected to analysis of variance ANOVA at 5% probability level. Fertilizer effects were significant on all the parameters assessed. In this study, soybean grain yield varies from 0.2 t/ha in plants nourished with 30 kgN/ha to 0.96 t/ha in plants that received 4 t/ha compost. Inoculation of soybean seed with rhizobium significantly improved the grain yield of soybean. Inoculated plants produced grain yield that is 35% higher than non-inoculated ones. The interactive effect of fertilizer types and inoculation was not significant on soybean grain yield and yield parameters. It was concluded that the use of 4 t/ha compost in combination with appropriate rhizobium strain could be a good agronomic practice for the production of high quality grain in soybean.

A review of the efficacy of mycotoxin detoxifying agents used in feed in light of changing global environment and legislation

In the recent years, mycotoxins have undoubtedly gained a keen interest of the scientific community studying food safety. The main reason is their profound impact on both human and animal health. International surveys reveal a low percentage of feed samples being contaminated above permitted/guideline levels, developed to protect consumers of animal derived products. However, the deleterious impact of feed co-contaminated at low levels with numerous both known and regulated as well as novel mycotoxins on producing animals has been described. Associated effects on agro-economics world-wide include substantial pecuniary losses which are borne by the society as a whole. Even though good agronomic practice is thought to be the most effective way of preventing animal feed contamination, the EC have recognised the need to introduce an additional means of management of feed already contaminated with low-levels of mycotoxins to alleviate detrimental effects on agricultural production efficiency. This review discusses types of feed detoxifying agents described in scientific literature, their reported efficacy in bothin vitro andin vivo systems, and comparison with available commercial formulations in the light of increasing knowledge regarding mycotoxin prevalence in the changing global environment.

English

Plant-parasitic nematodes are economically important pests of banana (Musa spp.) and compromise its productivity. Controlling nematode populations and good agronomic practices are pre-requisites for a good yield. A survey of farmers in the Rusitu Valley, Zimbabwe, was conducted to assess their current banana production practices and knowledge of plant-parasitic nematodes associated with banana. Respondents were selected using systematic sampling from three wards. Most farmers (61.9%) grew bananas as a monoculture, and 38.1% intercrop banana with other crops. All the farmers neither rotated banana with other crops nor practiced pest and disease control measures, and only 11.4% apply a fertiliser to their banana crops. Most (82.9%) farmers in Rusitu Valley had little or no knowledge of plant-parasitic nematodes that damage bananas. Sound extension programme in Rusitu Valley should educate farmers on the importance of managing plant-parasitic nematodes and using better banana crop production practices. Key words: Plant-parasitic nematode, banana, production practice, Rusitu Valley.

Ex-ante analysis of opportunities for the sustainable intensification of maize production in Mozambique

It has been suggested that during the first half of the 21st century food production will need to increase by 50–70% using nearly the same amount of land, and under increasing pressures of climate change, to meet the demand of an increasingly crowded world. The challenge is significant, though there are also opportunities, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa where productivity gaps are largest. Here we report results from a participatory modeling exercise that aimed to identify feasible pathways for the sustainable intensification of agriculture in Manica Province, Mozambique. We used a combination of farmer questionnaires (n=52) and a cropping systems model (APSIM) to derive the likely causes and magnitude of existing gaps in maize yield, and agronomic nitrogen use efficiency. Results showed highly variable (i.e. season to season and site-to-site — 35% and 42% CV respectively) maize yields — regardless of nitrogen input use. Variability in soil fertility status and basic agronomic management (primarily sowing density) were the main drivers explaining site-to-site variability, while rainfall explained much of the season-to-season variability. Best-practice sowing densities (1 to 4.5pl./m2) were dependent on farmers' N inputs and agro-ecology. In most cases, the highest simulated yields were observed at sowing densities far below those recommended by the local extension services (4.4pl./m2). Estimates of returns on N inputs indicated that N fertilization was highly profitable for medium- and higher-performing farmers. Poor performing farmers could still make profits from investing in N fertilizers, but returns were lower than those of the better performers. We identified important knowledge gaps among the poorest performing smallholder. These gaps in knowledge related to simple principles of good agronomic practice — e.g. suitable plant populations, row spacing and sowing dates. We estimate that if these issues were addressed (i.e. with present levels of on farm investment) maize production could be increased by 120% from 309kg/ha to 682kg/ha, among 17% of the population of farmers. We also calculated that by re-investing a fraction (a third) of the proceeds from improving productivity, a further increase in productivity of 64% could be achieved, lifting yields from 682kg/ha to 1118kg/ha. We conclude that as a first stepping stone in lifting productivity, focus should aim to provide the poorer performing farmers simple recommendations for basic agronomic management that account for the specificities of local climate and soil conditions, before costly technological innovations (e.g. fertilizers, herbicides) are introduced.

Groundnut Market Participation in the Upper West Region of Ghana

Agricultural commercialisation is observed to be low in Ghana despite the focus of policy and efforts on increasing the rate of commercialisation. While there are significant differences of market commercialisation across regions, the Upper West Region has one of the least average marketed surplus ratio. Using a household survey data for the 2011 production season in the Upper West Region, this paper quantified the magnitude and direction of effects of factors influencing smallholder groundnut farmers’ intensity of market participation using the Tobit model. The Household Commercialisation Index was first used to estimate the intensity of market participation. The results showed that about fifty-three percent of the output of groundnuts was sold in the region within the production year, which indicated a moderate commercialisation index. The results also indicated that marital status, output, mobile phone ownership, credit access, access to market information and form of sale were the most influencing variables to participation decisions. The paper concluded that groundnut was basically produced as a cash crop for the market to enhance household income. The paper recommends that the Ministry of Food and Agriculture needs to enhance groundnut productivity through access to extension services, use of improved and high yielding varieties as well as the use of good agronomic practices. Keywords : Household Commercialisation Index, Tobit Model, Intensity of Market Participation, Smallholder Groundnut Farmers, Upper West Region

Determination of biochemical and microbiological content of black pepper (<i>Piper nigrum</i> L.) and its potential option as animal feed additive

Biochemical (proximate, minerals, antinutritional factors and essential oils) and microbiological (bacteria, fungi) analyses of black pepper were carried to determine its potentials in animal nutrition. Its antimicrobial effect in poultry feed was also investigated. Black pepper samples (n = 5) from different geographical locations in Nigeria were used. Mean values showed that it contained crude protein (10.70%), ether extract (16.67%), essential oil (2.87%) and gross energy of 20.55 MJ. Higher level of iron (127.90 ppm) was observed followed by phosphorus (122.0), Potassium (121.50) and manganese (116.98). Heavy metal occurred in trace amounts such as silver (0.11 ppm), mercury (0.96), lead (0.75), aluminium (0.11) and Chromium (7.55). Antinutritional factors examined and found in the black pepper were hydrogen cyanide (17.89 mg/100g), oxalate (225.20), tannins (21.50), phytic acid (1.17) and trypsin inhibitor (1.35). The black pepper was acidic (pH 5.95), contaminated by bacteria, fungi and showed some levels of antibacterial effect and no antifungal activity in poultry feed. Going by its properties, with good agronomic practices, processing, packaging and effective storage to reduce microbial contamination, black pepper could be a novel food additive in animal nutrition.

Community Agro Biodiversity Conservation Continuum:An Integrated Approach to Achieve Food and Nutrition Security

Agrobiodiversity is a confluence of the past, present and future and both a tangible and intangible resource critical for both rural and urban food and nutrition security. Transformation in agricultural technologies, land and water use and urbanization has been largely responsible for its rapid erosion. In-situ conservation of crops and varieties within the context of communities is being increasingly recognized an important pathway for sustainable use of agrobiodiversity. The present article describes a C4 Approach that pay concurrent attention to conservation, cultivation, consumption and commerce of agrobiodiversity resources, conceptualized and operationalized by the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation in three agrobiodiversity hotspots of India. The C4 Approach consists of a series of village level interventions like establishment of gene-seed-grain banks, participatory conservation systems, participatory varietal selection, seed purification, promotion of farmer to farmer seed exchange, promotion of good agronomic and planting practices, use of small machinery for processing rice and millets at local level, product diversification and linking to markets for strengthening livelihoods as well as mainstreaming use of agrobiodiversity among urban consumers. Training and capacity development and institutionalization of the efforts through formation of grassroots institutions dovetailed with science based interventions were important components aimed at sustaining the efforts.

Integrated soil fertility management in sub-Saharan Africa: unravelling local adaptation

Abstract. Intensification of smallholder agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa is necessary to address rural poverty and natural resource degradation. Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) is a means to enhance crop productivity while maximizing the agronomic efficiency (AE) of applied inputs, and can thus contribute to sustainable intensification. ISFM consists of a set of best practices, preferably used in combination, including the use of appropriate germplasm, the appropriate use of fertilizer and of organic resources, and good agronomic practices. The large variability in soil fertility conditions within smallholder farms is also recognized within ISFM, including soils with constraints beyond those addressed by fertilizer and organic inputs. The variable biophysical environments that characterize smallholder farming systems have profound effects on crop productivity and AE, and targeted application of agro-inputs and management practices is necessary to enhance AE. Further, management decisions depend on the farmer's resource endowments and production objectives. In this paper we discuss the "local adaptation" component of ISFM and how this can be conceptualized within an ISFM framework, backstopped by analysis of AE at plot and farm level. At plot level, a set of four constraints to maximum AE is discussed in relation to "local adaptation": soil acidity, secondary nutrient and micronutrient (SMN) deficiencies, physical constraints, and drought stress. In each of these cases, examples are presented whereby amendments and/or practices addressing these have a significantly positive impact on fertilizer AE, including mechanistic principles underlying these effects. While the impact of such amendments and/or practices is easily understood for some practices (e.g. the application of SMNs where these are limiting), for others, more complex processes influence AE (e.g. water harvesting under varying rainfall conditions). At farm scale, adjusting fertilizer applications to within-farm soil fertility gradients has the potential to increase AE compared with blanket recommendations, in particular where fertility gradients are strong. In the final section, "local adaption" is discussed in relation to scale issues and decision support tools are evaluated as a means to create a better understanding of complexity at farm level and to communicate appropriate scenarios for allocating agro-inputs and management practices within heterogeneous farming environments.

Decomposing maize yield gaps differentiates entry points for intensification in the rainfed mid-hills of Nepal

The central mid-hills region of Nepal is characterized by rainfed production systems where maize (Zea mays) is the principal crop during the monsoon (kharif) season. In general, maize yields in the hills are judged to be intractably low and few efforts have systematically assessed either the water-limited productivity potential or identified sensible entry points toward sustainable intensification that can be selectively matched to the needs and constraints faced by different types of farmers. This study combines field surveys, on-farm field experiments, and simulation modeling (DSSAT) to explore opportunities for closing maize yield gaps in these ecologies. Among surveyed households, the mean grain yield of maize under current farmer practice was 2.0tha−1 whereas good agronomic practices increased maize yields up to 6.5tha−1 (i.e. exploitable yield gap of 4.5tha−1). Recognizing that farmers rarely adopt full technology packages, the value of single agronomic interventions was also explored with all other management factors maintained as per prevailing farmer practice. Averaged across sites and two seasons, non-limiting fertilizer rates (175:60:60kgNPKha−1) increased grain yields by 1.8tha−1 followed by the use of hybrids (1.4tha−1), higher plant population (0.9tha−1), and improved weed control (0.9tha−1). These results were also reflected in changes to the economic performance of the system with gross margins increasing from a ‘farmer practice’ base of $202ha−1 (B:C=1.86) to $339ha−1 (B:C=2.14) with hybrid adoption, $454ha−1 (B:C=2.88) with higher plant population, $646ha−1 (B:C=2.52) with non-limiting fertilizer, and $611ha−1 (B:C=3.37) with careful weed control. Further gains in profitability were achieved with layered agronomic interventions, which increased gross margins to $857 and $763ha−1 (B:C=2.95 in both) in conventional tillage (CT) and minimum (strip tillage; ST) systems, respectively. Divergence between grain yield gains and economic performance criteria highlights the importance of considering both perspectives. For resource-poor households, maintaining optimal plant population can increase B:C by more than 50% with small investments ($7ha−1). Simulation results also suggest that additional potential productivity advantages are achievable with timely planting (e.g. 19% higher mean yield for short duration hybrid with less inter-annual variability). Cultivation of longer duration hybrids can also increase yield potential over their shorter duration alternatives, although trade-offs with yield potential of the second crop in the rotation must be considered. These results highlight several pathways toward intensification in the hills of Nepal that have varying investment requirements, inferred risks, and implications for the different dimensions of sustainability and food security.

Ornamental exterior versus therapeutic interior of Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus): the two faces of a versatile herb.

Catharanthus roseus (L.) known as Madagascar periwinkle (MP) is a legendary medicinal plant mostly because of possessing two invaluable antitumor terpenoid indole alkaloids (TIAs), vincristine and vinblastine. The plant has also high aesthetic value as an evergreen ornamental that yields prolific blooms of splendid colors. The plant possesses yet another unique characteristic as an amiable experimental host for the maintenance of the smallest bacteria found on earth, the phytoplasmas and spiroplasmas, and serves as a model for their study. Botanical information with respect to synonyms, vernacular names, cultivars, floral morphology, and reproduction adds to understanding of the plant while the geography and ecology of periwinkle illustrate the organism's ubiquity. Good agronomic practices ensure generous propagation of healthy plants that serve as a source of bioactive compounds and multitudinous horticultural applications. The correlation between genetic diversity, variants, and TIA production exists. MP is afflicted with a whole range of diseases that have to be properly managed. The ethnobotanical significance of MP is exemplified by its international usage as a traditional remedy for abundant ailments and not only for cancer. TIAs are present only in micro quantities in the plant and are highly poisonous per se rendering a challenge for researchers to increase yield and reduce toxicity.

Influence of the nocturnal harvesting of olives from Salento (Italy) on the quality of the extra virgin olive oil

In southern Italy, some olive cultivars such as ‘Ogliarola Salentina’ ripen when the day temperature is still high, at up to 28 to 30 °C. This can affect both the oil quality and the expression of its valuable characteristics. In addition, it increases the risk of undesirable fermentation that can generate off-flavors. In the present study, nocturnal olive harvesting was carried out to determine the influence that temperature can have on the characteristics of the extra virgin olive oil, and particularly on the volatile and oxidative compounds. The data obtained are encouraging: the lower temperatures that occur during the night appear to have a particular and positive impact on the organoleptic characteristics of the extra virgin olive oil produced, with enhanced formation of the volatile compounds that contribute to the ‘green’ notes of the flavor. In areas where daytime temperatures are very high, the nocturnal harvesting of olives at the correct stage of maturity therefore represents a good agronomic practice for the production of oils with high organoleptic and nutritional merit.

Pre-mature fruit drop and coffee production in India: a review

Coffee is a stimulating beverage crop and finds second place after petroleum products in the world trade. There are many species of coffee but only two species, Coffea arabica and C. canephora popularly called as arabica and, robusta coffees are commercially cultivated. The pre-mature fruit drop of 6–10 % occurs during early stage of berry growth and development in June–July, which is a common phenomenon due to various reasons irrespective of the crop season. However, certain pre-disposing factors such as wet feet condition due to excess rain fall coupled with cool ambient temperature, high relative humidity, cloudy weather and inadequate drainage leading to soil saturation and water logging, improper handling of bushes facilitating the secondary infection of stalk rot and black rot increases the pre-mature fruit drop. In general, fruit drop in coffee is not common at maturity/ripening stage unless the winter period that coincides with ripening stage experience heavy rain fall and hail storms leading to splitting and dropping of ripened fruits. Physiological pre-mature fruit drop under ‘Wet feet’ conditions, is associated with reduction in endogenous levels of cytokinins coupled with high content of abscisic acid (ABA) and reduction in carbohydrate reserve and nutrients. The competition among the different-sized developing berries for carbohydrate reserves causes’ additional drop of pre-mature berries. Plants bearing high number of berries are also vulnerable for high percentage of fruit drop due to competition among the developing berries for carbohydrate reserves and nutrients. Systematic studies have revealed that physiological intervention by use of plant growth regulators, coupled with adoption of good agronomic practices, reduces pre-mature fruit drop and defoliation, and enhance cropping wood for subsequent year, resulting in increase in crop yield by 12–20 %. Here we have reviewed physiology aspects associated with pre-mature fruit drop, pre disposing factors for defoliation and pre-mature fruit drop, use of plant growth regulators to minimize the losses and role of recommended cultivation practices for realizing yield potential.

Good Orchard Maintenance and Agronomic Practices as Working Components in Management of Dieback Disease on Passion Fruit (Passiflora sp.) in Kenya

Passion fruit is of high economic importance in Kenya. In the recent past, diseases have led to decline in fruit production. This study aimed at identifying disease management practices that could be adopted to mitigate disease impacts. Passion fruit varieties used include purple passion (Passiflora edulis Sims) and the KPF hybrid. Field maintenance practices assessed include frequency of orchard sanitation through regular weeding and pruning, pesticide application, nutrient and water provision to plants during the dry season. Agronomic factors assessed include grafting, prunning and effect of wounding in increasing plants’ susceptibility to dieback infections. Assessments were done on-farm and on station; 3 research sites were identified in the field and 1 site was set up on-station. For each of the 3 on-farm sites, a farmer’s performance in orchard maintenance was rated for all the factors on a score of 1-5 and compared to disease severity (1-5 dieback scale ) and incidence (0-100%). Experiments were set up to assess role of grafting on 4 months Original Research Article Annual Research & Review in Biology, 4(9): 1397-1405, 2014 1398 old purple passion seedlings, while effects of prunning and wounding were assessed on 9 months old passion fruit plants of both varieties. Disease establishment was observed and severity was assessed based on the 1-5 dieback scoring chart. Results showed that proper field maintenance reduced disease incidence and severity (12% and 1.6, respectively) in site 1, while poor maintenance yielded higher levels (55% and 4.0, respectively) in site 3. Agronomic practices important in transmission of dieback pathogens on the purple variety were pruning, grafting and wounding. These were found to enhance disease establishment and severity (P ≤ 0.05) on the purple variety while KPF 12 was tolerant to dieback infections. The study established that proper agronomy and field maintenance practices are important and should be integral in control of dieback disease.

Insecticide drift and its effect on Kampimodromus aberrans (Oudemans) in an Italian vineyard-hedgerow system

When a pesticide is applied in a vineyard, the fraction can drift away from the target and affect the abundance of beneficial arthropods in adjacent crops or hedgerows. A field experiment was conducted in north-eastern Italy using an air-assisted sprayer in order to evaluate the spatial distribution of etofenprox drift in a vineyard-hedgerow system and its effect on the predatory mite Kampimodromus aberrans. Three scenarios of decreasing potential drift were compared, all in still wind conditions. In the worst case of free expansion of drift, 12% of the applied rate drifted for 6–7 m with minor effect on K. aberrans abundance, according to the dose–response assay results; the presence of a hedgerow reduced the drift by about 80%. The hedgerow was also effective when good agronomic practices were followed, and the effect of drift on K. aberrans was not significant, its abundance being mainly linked to the patchiness of the natural population. Because of lateral drift, i.e. not in the direction of air-flow from sprayer, spray was detected at very low concentration in the contiguous untreated vineyard. This had no effect on K. aberrans but had the capacity to contaminate organic crops and provide a risk to surface water and bystanders. This suggests that an environmental regulatory scheme taking hedgerows into account should be supported and implemented on a catchment or regional scale.