Golf Swing Performance Research Articles

Influence of biceps-triceps ratio on golf swing performance.

This study examines how maintaining a straight leading arm affects the muscle strength balance between the biceps and triceps in golfers and its influence on golf performance. We recruited 20 male participants aged 18-45, including 10 golfers and 10 non-golfers. The participants' average age was 25.6±6.2 years, height 1.8±0.07 m, and weight 75.6±10.2 kg. We measured isometric and isokinetic muscle strength using the Primus RS Dynamometer (BTE Technologies, Hanover, MD, USA) and assessed golf swing performance with the Optishot 2 Golf Simulator (Optishot, Brighton, MI, USA). Golfers exhibited significantly greater triceps strength (P = 0.02) and a lower biceps-to-triceps strength ratio (P = 0.002) than non-golfers. Low-handicap golfers showed more centered and consistent ball impacts compared to mid-handicap golfers. There were no significant differences in swing path and face angles between low- and mid-handicap golfers. Muscle strength and the biceps-to-triceps strength ratio correlated with driving distance, as well as the frequencies of specific swing paths, face angles, and ball impact points, highlighting the complex interplay between muscle balance and swing performance. Greater triceps strength and a lower biceps-to-triceps strength ratio are key for maintaining a straight leading arm, especially in skilled golfers. While increased muscle strength tends to enhance driving distance, it does not necessarily improve accuracy. Consistent ball impact points may indicate higher skill levels. Future research should involve a larger, more diverse participant pool to validate these findings and further explore the complex nature of golf swing performance.

Golfers' Performance Is Improved More by Combining Foam Rolling and Dynamic Stretch to the Lead Hip Than Practice Golf Swinging.

Hamada, Y, Akasaka, K, Otsudo, T, Sawada, Y, Hattori, H, Kikuchi, Y, and Hall, T. Golfers' performance is improved more by combining foam rolling and dynamic stretch to the lead hip than practice golf swinging. J Strength Cond Res 38(7): e391-e397, 2024-Warming up is considered effective in improving performance and preventing injury. Despite this, there have been few studies investigating warm-up programs in golf and whether specific factors contribute to improved performance. The purpose of this study was to examine the immediate effects of combined foam rolling and dynamic stretch (FR + DS) to the lead hip on golf swing performance, hip range of motion (ROM), and muscle strength in amateur golfers using a randomized crossover design. The study sample comprised 22 men (mean ± SD ; age, 32.6 ± 8.5 years, body mass index (BMI), 23.4 ± 2.7 kg·m -2 ). Subjects were assigned to receive either FR + DS or repetitive golf swing practice (SW) before crossing over to the other intervention for another day. Measurements included golf swing performance (ball speed, club head speed, flight distance ["carry"], spin rate, and launch angle), hip internal rotation (IR), and external rotation (ER) ROM, as well as hip IR and ER muscle strength. Comparisons between groups were made before and after each intervention. For golf swing performance, FR + DS improved "carry" significantly more than SW ( p < 0.05). No significant differences in golf swing performance other than "carry" were found. In addition, IR ROM and IR muscle strength of the lead hip were significantly increased in the FR + DS group ( p < 0.05). FR + DS has effects on improving lead hip IR ROM and IR muscle strength, which may facilitate golfers' swing and "carry." FR + DS shows promise as a warm-up method for amateur golfers who want to improve golf performance.

Twelve Weeks of Progressive Resistance Training Positively Improves Physical Fitness and Golf Swing Performance in Talented Youth Golfers.

Shaw, J, Gould, ZI, Oliver, JL, and Lloyd, RS. Twelve weeks of progressive resistance training positively improves physical fitness and golf swing performance in talented youth golfers. J Strength Cond Res 38(6): 1103-1110, 2024-This aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a 12-week resistance training program in talented junior golfers. Eighteen talented youth golfers were pair matched by maturity status and handicap, and subsequently allocated to an experimental (EXP) or control group. During the 12-week intervention, both groups continued with their normal golf practice while the EXP group also completed a progressive twice-weekly resistance training program. At baseline, subjects performed multiple trials of an isometric midthigh pull (IMTP), countermovement jump (CMJ), standing long jump, golf movement screen (GMS), and isometric plank hold. Club head speed (CHS) and carry distance for a 6-iron and driver were also measured using a commercial launch monitor. When controlled for maturity offset, there were significant ( p < 0.05) interaction effects in favor of the EXP group for absolute ( g = 1.29) and relative ( g = 2.06) peak force for the IMTP, CMJ absolute ( g = 0.73) and relative ( g = 0.66) peak power, jump height ( g = 1.05), modified reactive strength index ( g = 1.30), lateral ( g = 0.48-0.88) and horizontal jump distance ( g = 1.20), and GMS total score ( g = 1.07). Significant interaction effects were also reported in 6-iron and driver CHS and carry distance in favor of the EXP group ( p < 0.05; g = 0.41-1.64). These findings indicate that twice-weekly resistance training in combination with regular golf practice can stimulate increases in measures of strength, power, and movement competency in youth golfers, which should contribute to enhanced golf swing performance.

The effects of different iron shaft weights on golf swing performance.

This study examined the effects of three 7-iron shaft weights on golf swing performance among golfers of varying skill levels. The study included 10 low-handicap (LH; 4.3 ± 2.4) and 10 high-handicap (HH; 29.1 ± 5.4) right-handed golfers as participants. The participants were randomly assigned 7-iron clubs with shaft weights categorized as light (77g), medium (98g), or heavy (114g), and they performed test shots. Kinematic data were captured using a motion analysis system with nine infra-red high speed cameras; a force platform connected to this system was used to record weight transfer patterns. Performance variables were assessed using a FlightScope launch monitor. A two-way mixed-design analysis of variance was used to determine the significance of the performance differences among both participant groups and golf shaft weights. The results indicated that during the backswing, the LH group exhibited significantly greater maximum rightward upper torso rotation, maximum X-factor, and maximum right wrist hinge rotation than did the HH group. During the downswing, the LH group exhibited significantly greater maximum upper torso angular velocity and maximum right wrist angular velocity than did the HH group. Moreover, the LH group produced significantly higher ball speeds, longer shot distances, and lower launch angles than did the HH group. The shaft weight neither greatly altered the golf swing nor displaced the center of gravity of the golfers. The lighter shafts were observed to facilitate faster clubhead speeds and initial ball velocities, thereby resulting in longer shot distances, especially among LH golfers. Although significant differences in swing mechanics and performance exist between HH and LH golfers, lighter shafts can contribute to increased shot distances for all golfers.

Within- and Between-Session Reliability of Golf Swing Variables Using the TrackMan Launch Monitor in Talented Golfers.

Shaw, J, Gould, ZI, Oliver, JL, and Lloyd, RS. Within- and between-session reliability of golf swing variables using the TrackMan launch monitor in talented golfers. J Strength Cond Res 37(12): 2431-2437, 2023-The purpose of the current study was to establish the within- and between-session reliability of the TrackMan launch monitor to measure golf swing variables. Twenty-one golfers attended 2 test sessions, with data captured from 3 golf shots using a 6-iron and 3 using a driver. Club head speed (CHS), ball speed, smash factor, attack angle, club path, launch angle, spin rate, spin axis, carry distance, and total distance were determined from data collected using a TrackMan launch monitor. Within- and between-session reliability for each variable was calculated using repeated-measures analysis of variance, intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs), and coefficients of variation (CVs) with 95% confidence intervals. Within-session measures of CHS, ball speed, carry distance, and total distance were found to be reliable for both 6-iron and driver (CV ≤ 5.8, ICC ≥ 0.87) and launch angle for the 6-iron (CV = 6.7-9.3%, ICC = 0.87-0.92). Between-session measures of CHS, ball speed, smash factor, launch angle, carry distance, and total distance for both 6-iron and driver (CV% = 0.7-9.1%, ICC = 0.5-0.99) and spin rate for 6-iron (CV% = 9.4%, ICC = 0.89) were also shown to be reliable. These findings indicate that the TrackMan launch monitor is a reliable method for measuring CHS, ball speed, carry distance, and total distance in talented golfers, both within and between sessions. Practitioners can confidently use these variables to assess golf swing performance in golfers and evaluate meaningful changes in response to training interventions.

Physical determinants of golf swing performance in competitive youth golfers

ABSTRACT This study investigated measures of physical fitness and golf swing performance in competitive youth golfers. Sixty-four golfers, subdivided into three handicap groups (CAT0, <1 handicap, n = 21; CAT1, 1–5 handicap, n = 20; CAT2, >5 handicap, n = 23), were assessed for isometric strength, power, movement competency and core endurance. Clubhead speed (CHS) and carry distance for 6-iron and driver were also measured. When controlled for maturity offset, CAT0 golfers produced significantly greater peak power, isometric absolute and relative peak force, movement competency, and jump distance than higher handicap golfers (all p < 0.05). Maturity status was strongly associated with CHS and carry distance for both clubs (R 2 = 0.552–0.784). Linear regressions showed maturity offset explained a larger amount of variance in CHS (driver = 78.4%, 6-iron = 71.3%) and carry distance (driver = 55.2%, 6-iron = 57.4%) than handicap. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that peak power explained 79.4% and 82.4% of variation in 6-iron and driver CHS, respectively, while isometric absolute peak force explained 69.6% and 74.3% of the variation in 6-iron and driver carry distance, respectively. Subsequently, interventions targeting the development of peak force and power could aid golf swing performance in young golfers.

Test-Retest Reliability of Task Performance for Golf Swings of Medium- to High-Handicap Players.

Background: Golf swing performance in medium- to high-handicap players must be reliably measured to use this variable in both research studies and in applied settings. Nevertheless, there are no studies published on this topic and test−retest evidence is only available for low-handicap players. The aim of this study was to determine the number of attempts necessary to obtain a reliable measurement protocol for swing performance variables in medium- to high-handicap players. Methods: Ten amateur players (55.67 (13.64) years, 78.4 (11.4) kg, 1.75 (7.95) m) took part in a test−retest study in two experimental sessions one week apart. In each one, fifteen swings with a six iron and a driver were evaluated with a 3D Doppler tracking golf radar. Results: The results showed that variables related to side carry could not be reliably measured in medium- to high-handicap players in only fifteen trials (ICC < 0.26, SEM > 12.05 m and MDC > 33.41 m). The rest of the performance variables related to the club and ball trajectories could be reliably measured with a 3D Doppler radar with between seven and ten swings. Conclusions: At least seven swings are recommended for the driver and ten for the six iron to measure golf swing performance.

Perceptions and approaches of golf coaches towards strength and conditioning activities for youth golfers

Golfers who want to improve their technical proficiency will undoubtedly hire a swing coach who may also influence and give advice on how the golfer can improve outside of technical enhancement (i.e. strength and conditioning, warm-ups, cool-downs etc.). With research examining the effects of strength and conditioning on youth golfers beginning to materialise, it is important to ascertain golf coaches’ perceptions of strength and conditioning, warm-ups and cool-downs and how they are utilised with youth golfers. Fifty Professional Golfers’ Association Professionals and Assistant Professionals completed an online questionnaire on their perceptions of, and approaches to, strength and conditioning, warm-up and cool-down activities for youth golfers. Data indicated that 84% and 80% of coaches perceived strength and conditioning could enhance golf swing performance and reduce the risk of injury, respectively. Although all coaches agreed golfers aged 18 years and under can take part in strength and conditioning activities, there was no consensus on when a golfer should start strength and conditioning activities, with most coaches unaware of the existing guidelines surrounding youth resistance training. Warm-ups are perceived by coaches to be beneficial for youth golfers with &gt; 75% of coaches stating their players completed a warm-up, however, the modes of exercise coaches deemed suitable for a warm-up were varied. Cool-downs were deemed beneficial for aiding recovery post-round, yet over half of coaches selected their players did not habitually complete one. Findings from the questionnaire highlight that although perceptions towards strength and conditioning, warm-ups and cool-downs are positive, educational solutions to disseminate the underlying contemporary guidelines and practical applications to coaches and players are required.

Golf Swing Biomechanics: A Systematic Review and Methodological Recommendations for Kinematics.

Numerous studies have been conducted to investigate golf swing performance in both preventing injury and injury occurrence. The objective of this review was to describe state-of-the-art golf swing biomechanics, with a specific emphasis on movement kinematics, and when possible, to suggest recommendations for research methodologies. Keywords related to biomechanics and golf swings were used in scientific databases. Only articles that focused on golf-swing kinematics were considered. In this review, 92 articles were considered and categorized into the following domains: X-factor, crunch factor, swing plane and clubhead trajectory, kinematic sequence, and joint angular kinematics. The main subjects of focus were male golfers. Performance parameters were searched for, but the lack of methodological consensus prevented generalization of the results and led to contradictory results. Currently, three-dimensional approaches are commonly used for joint angular kinematic investigations. However, recommendations by the International Society of Biomechanics are rarely considered.

Physical Determinants of Golf Swing Performance: Considerations for Youth Golfers

ABSTRACT In the sport of golf, club head speed has been associated with higher skill levels in golfers and lower overall scoring. Research has shown that club head speed is an important measure of golf swing performance that can be enhanced with appropriate strength and conditioning interventions. Understanding the determinants of club head speed can help inform the design of testing batteries for talent identification and talent development of youth golfers. This review aims to highlight the current literature surrounding the biomechanical and physical determinants of golf swing performance and to examine the available tests that can be used to test these determinants in youth golfers.

Deficits in the Star Excursion Balance Test and Golf Performance in Elite Golfers with Chronic Low Back Pain.

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether low-handicap elite golfers with chronic low back pain (CLBP) exhibit deficits in dynamic postural control and whether CLBP affects golfers in terms of their golf swing parameters. A total of fifteen Division 1 college golfers were recruited as participants. Of these, six of whom experienced CLBP, while the remaining participants were healthy. In this study, CLBP was defined as experiencing chronic pain symptoms for more than six months. The Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT) was administered to examine dynamic posture control in both groups. The TrackMan Golf Launch Monitor Simulator was used to collect data on the performance parameters of the swing of the participants. The results for both feet in the medial, lateral, posterior, posteromedial, and posterolateral directions indicated that the CLBP group scored lower than the control group. However, the CLBP group scored higher for the right foot in the anterolateral direction. The parameters for the club speed and ball carry of the CLBP group were lower than those of the control group. Further, the CLBP group exhibited a more upright swing plane relative to the control group. Taken together, our findings suggest that SEBT may be feasible and highly accessible to assess golf swing performance of elite players with CLBP.

Association of anthropometrics and physical performance measures to golf-specific variables in collegiate male golfers.

As physical fitness has become more of a central component of competitive golf it is important to have an understanding of the relationship between anthropometric and physical performance on actual golf performance. Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to determine the relationship between measures of anthropometrics and physical performance to golf swing performance. Fourteen division I collegiate golfers performed a battery of tests including the vertical jump, grip strength, rotational medicine ball toss, and sit and reach test in addition to anthropometric measure measurements. Golf specific variables included clubhead speed (CHS), ball velocity (BV) and carry distance (CD) using the participants own driver. Pearson product moment correlations were used to assess the level of relationship between all variables. Statistically significant large positive relationships were found between grip strength and all golf specific variables. Height also showed large significant positive relationship with both CHS and BV. The association between anthropometrics and physical performance and golf specific variables appear to be limited in a group of collegiate male golfers, outside of grip strength. However, this does not mean that physical fitness is irrelevant to golf performance, but caution should be taken in assuming increase in physical performance will have a direct impact on the golf specific variables.

Variability of motor moment during golf swing: study of a female professional player

Golf swing performance has been widely studied. Performance parameters based on various mechanical concepts were developed such as X-factor (Kwon et al. 2013), or ground reaction forces (McNitt-Gra...

Influence of the projection plane and the markers choice on the X-factor computation of the golf swing X-factor: a case study

X-factor seeks to account for the dissociation between the shoulder and the pelvis girdles. It has been believed to be a key parameter for golf swing performance. However, several computational met...

Balance And Kinematic Swing Sequence In Older Female Golfers

Female golfers account for approximately 25% of the entire golfing population in the United States and 16% of female golfers are over the age of 60. While balance and golf swing kinematic sequence are frequently cited as important performance determinants, literature involving the older female golfer is limited. PURPOSE: To examine the balance profile (during specific dynamic tasks) and kinematic golf-swing pattern displayed in older female golfers. METHODS: Thirteen female golfers using a right-handed swing strategy (mean age ± SD, 67.5 ± 5.5) completed the Modified Clinical Test of Sensory Integration of Balance and the Rhythmic Weight Shift (RWS) protocols in order to collect balance data. A golf-swing kinematic assessment was also performed. Three recorded drives were used to analyze the swing and establish a dominant sequence. Balance outcome data were examined with reference to established age-matched normal values. Golf-swing kinematic sequence patterns were compared between those participants within (N=7; mean age ± SD, 66.1 ± 5.2) and outside of (N=6; mean age ± SD, 69 ± 5.9) normal Forward-Backward Directional Control (FBDCL). RESULTS: All participants displayed normal directional velocity values for the RWS assessment but only half demonstrated normal FBDCL. The kinematic sequence analysis revealed that 53.8% of all participants optimally initiated the downswing by leading with the pelvis. Golfers with normal FBDCL (mean % time on axis ± SD, 79.1 ± 5.5), were more likely (71.4%) to initiate a normal kinematic swing sequence compared to 33.3% of those with abnormal FBDCL (mean % time on axis ± SD, 64 ± 7). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that this population of golfers may need to consider exercise or training programs designed to improve forward/backward dynamic balance control as a means to assist in optimizing the kinematic sequence and overall golf-swing performance.

The effects of audible feedback as a coaching strategy on golf skill learning for novice players

ABSTRACT Effective golf coaching has been a critical issue for trainees and coaches. We found that most conventional golf coaching systems are insufficiently supported by scientific evidence and require continued development of skill learning processes. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of a novel tagging teaching approach using an audible feedback for novice golfers to improve their kinematic characteristics and golf swing performance. In a controlled experiment, 24 male novice golfers were randomly assigned to either the tagging (n = 13) or the non-tagging (conventional, n = 11) training group, receiving a 1.5-hour training session 3 times per week for 5 consecutive weeks. Kinematic data of downswing trajectories, from the downswing to the follow-through (DF), were collected to examine the between-group differences in the angular velocity of pelvis rotation and clubhead, and the centre of mass (COM) displacement. The results showed that the kinematic characteristics and swing performances (clubhead and ball speed, clubface angle, flight time, and carry distance) of tagging training group were better than non-tagging training group. The study demonstrated the superiority of an audible cueing approach over the traditional approach in effectively enhancing golf swing performance.

Physical Determinants of Golf Swing Performance: A Review.

Sheehan, WB, Bower, RG, and Watsford, ML. Physical determinants of golf swing performance: A review. J Strength Cond Res 36(1): 289-297, 2022-Traditionally, golf practice has primarily focused on the mental, technical, and skill aspects as the primary means to improve performance. Only recently has a greater emphasis been placed on the physical components with balance, muscular strength, power, and specific muscle-tendon properties demonstrating positive associations with club head speed and carry distance. Accordingly, this review will explore the influence of these physical components on measures of golf swing performance. Superior balance may allow players to effectively deal with the need to shift weight during the swing as well as different stance positions, whereas superior lower-body muscular strength, power, and stiffness may allow more mechanical work to be performed on the club during the swing per unit of time, consequently increasing club head speed. Alternatively, flexibility may also contribute to enhanced force production with a greater range of motion, particularly when generating the "X-factor," allowing for a longer backswing and more time to produce higher angular velocities and forces. Furthermore, training intervention studies focusing on the aforementioned components have demonstrated enhancements in swing performance. Targeting multiple muscle groups, including those implicated via electromyography activation, and utilizing multiple modalities have proven effective at increasing club head speed. However, such multifaceted programs have made it difficult to determine the mechanisms that specifically contribute to performance gains. Despite these limitations, strength, power, and musculotendinous stiffness, particularly in the lower body, seem to be stronger determinants of club head speed and carry distance than flexibility. Furthermore, acute improvements can be induced using resistance-orientated warm-ups.

Wearable resistance acutely enhances club head speed in skilled female golfers

Golf is a skill-based sport which requires optimal swing mechanics to improve golf performance. As practitioners seek training methods to improve swing kinetics without compromising swing kinematics, loading through wearable resistance is one training modality which enables the golf swing to be performed in an overloaded manner. The purpose of this research therefore was to explore the acute effects of wearable resistance on golf swing performance measures. A randomised cross-over design was used with five skilled female golfers (22.0 ± 2.5 years, 163.1 ± 3.3 cm, 57.1 ± 3.4 kg and handicap 4 ± 1.2) who performed a series of golf shots with and without wearable resistance of 1.6 kg (∼2.8% body mass) attached laterally to the posterior trail side of the body. Flightscope launch monitor and force plate technology were used to quantify changes in club head speed and ground reaction forces. Using a paired t-test used for statistical analysis, significant ( p &lt; 0.05) acute increases were found in club head speed (3.5%, p = 0.03), relative vertical ground reaction forces (11.4%, lead side, p = 0.01) and relative mediolateral ground reaction forces (7.1%, trail side, p = 0.03) with wearable resistance as compared to the unloaded condition. Wearable resistance enables a player to perform golf shots in an overloaded manner resulting in significant improvements in club head speed. Future research is required to assess the long-term adaptations to this form of loading on golf swing performance.

Strength Training Effects on Force Production and Drive Distance in Female Golfers: A Pilot Study

Strength training (ST) by golfers is a relatively recent phenomena, gaining popularity only over the last two decades. Thus, little quantitative research exists on its benefits. Previous research provides support for golf performance gains, primarily club head speed, following ST. It has also been reported that vertical jump height is positively correlated to vertical thrust during a golf swing with a driver, which positively impacts carry distance of the golf ball. However, there is a paucity of research describing the vertical ground reaction force (vGRF) generated during a golf swing and the relationship of said force to the carry distance of the golf ball. PURPOSE: 1) To evaluate if there is a relationship between vGRF produced and drive distance (DD) of the golf ball during a swing with a driver. 2) To determine if an 8-week ST program geared toward increasing vertical jump height affects vGRF and DD. 3) To evaluate the methodology for feasibility with a larger, more diverse population in future studies. METHODS: Participants were six female athletes (n=6) from a NCAA Division III varsity golf team (19.3 ± 1.4 years). Data was collected before and after an 8-week ST program focused on increasing vertical jump height. Participants completed two 45-minute ST sessions/week under the supervision of a certified strength and conditioning coach. Exercises included squats, broad jumps, box jumps, lunges with and without rotations, and sprints. vGRF was measured on force plates during the downswing phase of the golf swing with a driver and DD was measured with a golf launch monitor. Vertical jump height and measures of lower extremity and core strength were also collected. RESULTS: The correlation between vGRF and DD was weak (r = -0.03, p = 0.74). There were no significant differences between pre and post vGRF (25.3 N ± 32.8 N, p = 0.12) nor DD (-3.7 m ± 11.6 m, p = 0.47) within subjects. CONCLUSION: The golf swing is an intricate maneuver with numerous factors impacting ball flight and distance. It is likely that other factors such as club head speed and angle of attack have a greater influence on DD than vGRF. Further research with larger and more diverse populations may determine whether or not significant relationships exist between ST, vGRF production, and golf swing performance. The methodology has been deemed feasible for future studies.

Examination of the neuromechanical factors contributing to golf swing performance

ABSTRACTThis study investigated the relationship between a range of neuromechanical variables in the lower- and upper-body, and golf performance. Participants were assessed for individual muscle stiffness, vertical stiffness (Kvert), flexibility, power and maximal isometric strength. Furthermore, golf performance was determined by handicap and club head speed. Pearson’s correlations quantified the relationships between neuromechanical variables and performance measures. Participants were also separated into relatively high club head speed (HC) and low club head speed (LC) groups and compared for physical characteristics. Club head speed showed positive relationships with Kvert and power and a negative relationship with hip mobility. The HC group exhibited superior Kvert and power, while strength and flexibility measures were not related to performance. Higher levels of lower-body stiffness, rate of force development and power output appear to be beneficial for generating superior club head speed. A stiffer system may reduce the time needed to remove the “slack” from the series elastic component therefore, reducing electromechanical delay and enhancing rate of force development. The large positive association with rate of force development suggests that increasing this component, along with power production may be superior focal components for training in golfers due to the short duration of the downswing.