Golf Swing Performance Research Articles

Towards Real-Time Multi-Sensor Golf Swing Classification Using Deep CNNs

In recent years, smart sports equipment and body sensor systems have become popular in professional and amateur sports. One of a few remaining problems in real-time applications is the discovery of knowledge from the embedded sensors data. In sports training, such knowledge helps accelerated motor learning. The authors start with exploring the possibilities of the classification of golf swing performance with the 1-D convolutional neural network (CNN) in real-time. They thoroughly investigate multiple golf swing data classifiers based on CNNs fed with multi-sensor signals. The authors test the possibilities of real-time performance of CNN methods on the multi-length sequences. In addition, they thoroughly evaluate the performance of their well-trained CNN-based classifier on the aforementioned test set in terms of common indicators. Experiments and corresponding results show that the authors' models can satisfy the real-time requirement of the accuracy of the classification and outperform support vector machine (SVM).

THE EFFECTS OF A 5-WEEK GOLF SPECIFIC STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING INTERVENTION ON SWING PERFORMANCE FACTORS

BackgroundThe effects of golf specific strength and conditioning interventions on performance are scarcely researched. However, a multitude of research exists relative to golf related injuries. From those studies, it has...

How to quantify the transition phase during golf swing performance: Torsional load affects low back complaints during the transition phase

ABSTRACTThe transition phase of a golf swing is considered to be a decisive instant required for a powerful swing. However, at the same time, the low back torsional loads during this phase can have a considerable effect on golf-related low back pain (LBP). Previous efforts to quantify the transition phase were hampered by problems with accuracy due to methodological limitations. In this study, vector-coding technique (VCT) method was proposed as a comprehensive methodology to quantify the precise transition phase and examine low back torsional load. Towards this end, transition phases were assessed using three different methods (VCT, lead hand speed and X-factor stretch) and compared; then, low back torsional load during the transition phase was examined. As a result, the importance of accurate transition phase quantification has been documented. The largest torsional loads were observed in healthy professional golfers (10.23 ± 1.69 N · kg−1), followed by professional golfers with a history of LBP (7.93 ± 1.79 N · kg−1), healthy amateur golfers (1.79 ± 1.05 N · kg−1) and amateur golfers with a history of LBP (0.99 ± 0.87 N · kg−1), which order was equal to that of the transition phase magnitudes of each group. These results indicate the relationship between the transition phase and LBP history and the dependency of the torsional load magnitude on the transition phase.

The effect of a seven-week exercise program on golf swing performance and musculoskeletal measures

As most golf exercise studies have shown improved golf performance as a result of two or three sessions per week, the present study investigated the effects of a supervised exercise session performed once a week for seven weeks on golf swing variables and musculoskeletal screening measures. Professional Golfers Association of Australia International Golf Institute student golfers ( n = 43) with a mean ± standard deviation handicap of 8.6 ± 8.3 participated in the study. Each golfer performed 10 musculoskeletal tests and a standardised 60-shot golf performance test (TrackMan, Vedbaek, Denmark) on separate days before and after the seven-week program. Significant improvements in a number of musculoskeletal tests (i.e. left leg bridging (6.6%), thoracic extension (62.5%), right thoracic rotation (23.3%), and right (20.8%) and left single leg squat (29.1%)) were observed (all p ≤ 0.024); however, no significant differences were observed for any golf swing variables. Future research investigating different training protocols may help to determine whether the type or frequency of training has the greatest influence on golf swing performance.

Biomechanical Evaluation of Dynamic Balance Control Ability During Golf Swing

Balance ability seems to be significantly correlated with golfing skill. However, it is unclear whether dynamic balance control has a direct influence on golf swing performance. In this study, the effects of a golfer’s skill level on the observed dynamic balance control ability during the golf swing were evaluated. Fifty participants were divided into three groups (professional, advanced, and novice) based on their official handicap scores. Six infrared cameras and two force platforms were used to determine dynamic alterations of the center of mass (COM) and center of pressure (COP). The peak-to-peak displacement and velocity of the COM and COP in the professional golfers were generally lower than those of the other golfers. However, the professional golfers displayed significantly greater COM displacement than that of the advanced amateur golfers in the lead/trail direction (p < 0.01). This does not directly imply deterioration of the dynamic balance ability since the COM-COP separation decreased as the skill level of the golfers increased. The professional golfers had superior dynamic balance ability, achieved by controlling the COP excursion to compensate for the increased variation of COM, leading to a more stable swing mechanism than that of the amateur golfers. This study provides quantitative information for the evaluation of dynamic balance control during the golf swing.

Inter-joint coordination between hips and trunk during downswings: Effects on the clubhead speed

ABSTRACTUnderstanding of the inter-joint coordination between rotational movement of each hip and trunk in golf would provide basic knowledge regarding how the neuromuscular system organises the related joints to perform a successful swing motion. In this study, we evaluated the inter-joint coordination characteristics between rotational movement of the hips and trunk during golf downswings. Twenty-one right-handed male professional golfers were recruited for this study. Infrared cameras were installed to capture the swing motion. The axial rotation angle, angular velocity and inter-joint coordination were calculated by the Euler angle, numerical difference method and continuous relative phase, respectively. A more typical inter-joint coordination demonstrated in the leading hip/trunk than trailing hip/trunk. Three coordination characteristics of the leading hip/trunk reported a significant relationship with clubhead speed at impact (r < −0.5) in male professional golfers. The increased rotation difference between the leading hip and trunk in the overall downswing phase as well as the faster rotation of the leading hip compared to that of the trunk in the early downswing play important roles in increasing clubhead speed. These novel inter-joint coordination strategies have the great potential to use a biomechanical guideline to improve the golf swing performance of unskilled golfers.

The Effects of an Eight-Week Plyometric Training Program on Golf Swing Performance Characteristics in Skilled Adolescent Golfers

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of an eight-week plyometric training intervention on measures of golf swing performance in skilled, adolescent golfers. Sixteen male golfers were recruited to this study, being placed into two handicap and age-matched groups: intervention and control. The intervention group completed an eight-week plyometric training program in addition to their golf-specific practice to study effects on clubhead speed (CHS), ball carry distance (BCD) and other associated measures. The control group continued to undertake their golf-specific training with no plyometric training. The intervention group demonstrated significant (p 0.05) changes in golf performance. The results suggest that in skilled adolescent golfers, eight-weeks of plyometric training may help to improve CHS and BCD by approximately 3%. However, large between participant performance differences...

Effects of a dietary supplement on golf drive distance and functional indices of golf performance.

BackgroundLimited research exists examining the impact of nutrition on golfing performance. This study’s purpose was to determine the impact of daily supplementation with an over-the-counter dietary supplement on golf performance.MethodsHealthy men (30.3 ± 6.9 y, 183.1 ± 5.6 cm, 86.7 ± 11.9 kg), with a 5–15 handicap were assigned in a double-blind, placebo-controlled manner to ingest for 30 days either a placebo (PLA, n = 13) or a dietary supplement containing creatine monohydrate, coffea arabica fruit extract, calcium fructoborate and vitamin D (Strong Drive™, SD, n = 14). Subjects ingested two daily doses for the first two weeks and one daily dose for the remaining two weeks. Participants followed their normal dietary habits and did not change their physical activity patterns. Two identical testing sessions in a pre/post fashion were completed consisting of a fasting blood sample, anthropometric measurements, 1-RM bench press, upper body power and golf swing performance using their driver and 7-iron. Data were analyzed using two-way mixed factorial ANOVAs and ANCOVA when baseline differences were present. Statistical significance was established a priori at p ≤ 0.05.ResultsANCOVA revealed significantly greater (post-test) best drive distance (p = 0.04) for SD (+5.0% [+13.6 yards], ES = 0.75) as well as a tendency (p = 0.07) for average drive distance to increase (+8.4% [+19.6 yards], ES = 0.65), while no such changes were found with PLA (−0.5% [−1.2 yards], ES = 0.04 and +1.3% [+2.8 yards], ES = 0.08, respectively). Both groups experienced significant increases in body mass and 1-RM bench press (p < 0.001). No other significant group × time interactions were found. For the SD group only, within-group analysis confirmed significant improvements in set 1 average (+8.9%, p = 0.001) and peak velocity (+6.8%, p < =0.01). No changes were noted for reported adverse events, pain inventories, quality of life or any measured blood parameter.ConclusionsSD supplementation for 30 days significantly improved best drive distance more than placebo. Supplementation was well tolerated and did not result in any clinically significant changes in markers of health or adverse events/side effect profiles.

Synchronized metronome training induces changes in the kinematic properties of the golf swing

The purpose of this study was to evaluate possible effects of synchronized metronome training (SMT) on movement dynamics during golf-swing performance, as captured by kinematic analysis. A one-group, between-test design was applied on 13 male golfers (27.5 ± 4.6 years old, 12.7 ± 4.9 handicap) who completed 12 sessions of SMT over a four-week period. Pre- and post-assessments of golf swings with three different clubs (4-iron, 7-iron, and pitching wedge) were performed using a three-dimensional motion capture system. Club velocity at three different swing phases (backswing, downswing, and follow-through) was measured and cross-correlation analysis of time-series signals were made on joint couplings (wrist–elbow–shoulder) of both arms, and between joints and the club, during the full golf swing. There were significantly higher cross-correlations between joint-couplings and concomitant changes of the associated phase-shift differences, as well as reduced phase-shift variability at post-test. No significant effect of SMT was found for the club velocities. We suggest that domain-general influences of SMT on the underlying brain-based motor control strategies lead to a more coordinated movement pattern of the golf-swing performance, which may explain previous observations of significantly improved golf-shot accuracy and decreased variability after SMT.

The Effect of Isolated Core Training on Selected Measures of Golf Swing Performance

This study aimed to quantify the effect of an 8-wk isolated core training program on selected ball and club parameters during the golf swing and also the variability of these measures. Thirty-six club-level golfers were randomly assigned to an exercise (n = 18) or control (n =18) group. The exercise group participated in an 8-wk core training program, which included eight basic exercises. Both groups continued with their normal activity levels including golf. Baseline and postintervention measurements included club-head speed, backspin, sidespin, and timed core endurance. Baseline measures for club-head speed, backspin, sidespin, and core endurance test were 79.9 ± 8.4 mph, 3930 ± 780 rpm, 1410 ± 610 rpm, and 91 ± 56 s for the intervention group and 77.6 ± 8.8 mph, 3740 ± 910 rpm, 1290 ± 730 rpm, and 69 ± 55 s for the control group (mean ± SD). The effect of our core training, when compared with control, was a likely small improvement in club-head speed (3.6%; 90% confidence limits = ±2.7%) and a very likely small improvement in muscular endurance (61%; ±33%). The effect on backspin (5%; ±10%) and sidespin (-6%; ±20%) was unclear. Baseline variability for club-head speed, backspin, and sidespin (based on 10 swings per golfer) was 5.7% ± 5.3%, 43% ± 19%, and 140% ± 180% for the intervention group and 6.5% ± 5.3%, 53% ± 53%, and 170% ± 130% for control group. The effect of the intervention on within-subject variability was a moderate decrease for club-head speed, a small decrease for backspin, and a small increase for sidespin when compared with control. The benefits achieved from our isolated core training program are comparable with those from other studies.

The Effect of an 8-Week Plyometric Exercise Program on Golf Swing Kinematics

Previous research on conditioning in golf has looked at the effect of physical training programs on outcome measures of golf swing performance, namely club head speed and ball displacement. The current study examined the effect of an 8-week golf specific plyometric training program on the kinematics of the golf swing. Sixteen skilled golfers were randomly assigned to either an experimental or control group. Three-dimensional swing kinematic data were collected on shots with a 6 iron pre and post the training intervention. Statistical analyses were used to identify any changes in swing kinematics after the training intervention. Results showed that the experimental group increased lead arm and hand speeds in the downswing after training. This was accompanied by increases in maximum X-factor during the downswing and maximum rate of recoil of the X-factor. In conclusion, a program of golf specific plyometric training can potential lead to improvements in variables related to club head speed and ball displace...

The Effect of Biological Movement Variability on the Performance of the Golf Swing in High- and Low-Handicapped Players

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of neuromotor noise on golf swing performance in high- and low-handicap players. Selected two-dimensional kinematic measures of 20 male golfers (n = 10 per high- or low-handicap group) performing 10 golf swings with a 5-iron club was obtained through video analysis. Neuromotor noise was calculated by deducting the standard error of the measurement from the coefficient of variation obtained from intra-individual analysis. Statistical methods included linear regression analysis and one-way analysis of variance using SPSS. Absolute invariance in the key technical positions (e.g., at the top of the backswing) of the golf swing appears to be a more favorable technique for skilled performance.

골프화의 구조적 특성 및 내부형태에 따른 스윙의 운동학적 변인에 미치는 영향

본 연구의 목적은 골프화 개발에 있어 골프화 종류에 따른 기능성 검증을 위해 골프 스윙 시 골프화 종류별 3차원 동작분석을 통하여 골프화가 골프 스윙에 미치는 영향을 알아보고자 한다. 연구대상은 골프 프로 자격증을 소지한 경력 10년 이상인 프로골퍼 5명으로 착용 골프화 사이즈가 270mm이었다. 스윙 동작 분석을 위해 Motion Analysis사(Santa Rosa CL USA)의 3차원 동작분석 시스템 및 EVaRT 4.2 소프트웨어를 사용하여 변인 값들을 분석하였다. 드라이버 스윙동작 중 어드레스(El), 탑(E2), 임팩트(E3), 피니쉬(E4)시의 각 이벤트 간의 구간(P1, P2, P3) 변인 값을 분석하여 스윙 구간별 시간, 최대속도, 신체이동 속도, 양발 분절의 속도, 발목의 뒤틀림 각도에 대한 조사를 실시하여 골프화의 종류와 수행능력의 연관성에 대하여 알아보았다. 실험결과 골프화 Type C의 경우 어드레스에서 탑까지의 시간이 가장 짧게 나타나 어드레스 시 안정성을 향상시켜 줄 것으로 사료된다. 또한 좌우 골프화의 최대 속도 신체중심 이동 최대 속도 좌우 발의 최대 속도의 경우도 골프화 Type C의 속도가 가장 빠르게 나타났으며 신체의 중심을 빠르게 하고 발의 회전력을 증가시켜 임팩트 시 다른 골프화보다 큰 힘을 전달할 수 있을 것으로 사료된다. The purpose of this study was to investigate effect of golf shoe design on kinematic variables during golf swing. Five professional male golfers with shoe size 270mm were recruited for the study. Swing motion was collected using 8 high speed camera motion analysis at a sampling of 180Hz. Kinematic variables were calculated by EVaRT 4.2 software. Driver swing was divided into four events; El(adress), E2(top), E3(impact) and E4(finish). Time, peak velocity, velocity of center of mass, velocity of the foot and ankle angle during Phase 1(El-E2), Phase 2(E2-E3), and Phase 3(E3-E4) were analyzed in order to investigate the relationship between golf shoe design and swing performance. The findings indicated that type C golf shoes would be beneficial for stability and control of movement during address and swing performance. Furthermore, faster speed of golf shoes, center of mass, and both feet were observed with Type C golf shoes. It is expected that golfers with Type C golf Shoes provide greater force as they control the center of mass faster and increase rotational force during impact compared to other golf shoes.

Dynamic Stretching and Golf Swing Performance

The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of dynamic stretching, static stretching and no stretching, as part of a general warm-up, on golf swing performance with a five-iron. Measures of performance were taken 0 min, 5 min, 15 min and 30 min after stretching. Dynamic stretching produced significantly greater club head speeds than both static stretching (Delta=1.9m.s (-1); p=0.000) and no stretching (Delta=1.7 m.s (-1); p=0.000), and greater ball speeds than both static stretching (Delta=3.5m.s (-1); p=0.003) and no stretching (Delta=3.3m.s (-1); p=0.001). Dynamic stretching produced significantly straighter swing-paths than both static stretching (Delta=-0.61 degrees , p=0.000) and no stretching (Delta=-0.72 degrees , p=0.01). Dynamic stretching also produced more central impact points than the static stretch (Delta=0.7 cm, p=0.001). For the club face angle, there was no effect of either stretch or time. For all of the variables measured, there was no significant difference between the static stretch and no stretch conditions. All of the results were unaffected by the time of measurement after stretching. The results indicate that dynamic stretching should be used as part of a general warm-up in golf.

The Effects of Custom-Fitted Clubs versus “Placebo” Clubs on Golf-Swing Characteristics

While the use of custom-fitted equipment is on the rise in the game of golf, empirical data as to its benefits and/or pitfalls is lacking. The current study sought to determine the effectiveness of custom-fitted clubs in the golf swing performance of both novice and experienced golfers. A launch monitor system was used to obtain measures of clubhead speed, clubface angle, and tempo to quantify baseline performance and any subsequent change in performance following the experimental procedures. Following a pre-test, which involved recording 12 swings with a standard 6-iron, participants were custom fit for club length, shaft flex, and lie angle according to the Henry-Griffitts TotalTest® system. Post-tests were administered following a 10-minute break. During the post-test, participants unknowingly used either a properly fitted club, a purposely ill-fitted (i.e., ‘placebo’ club), or the same standard club used in the pre-test. Our data suggest that custom club fitting does improve the characteristics of the golf swing, although often in different ways depending upon the skill level of the player.

Comparing Valdecoxib, Hydrocodone/acetaminophen, And Placebo In Relieving Golf-related Osteoarthritic Back Pain And Improving Swing Performance

Introduction Data supports the efficacy of selective COX-2 inhibitors in chronic treatment of osteoarthritis (OA). However, the efficacy of a single dose for the acute or pre-emptive relief of back pain and restoration of function during the high demand sport of golf has not been documented. Purpose To provide data on the efficacy of the COX-2 inhibitor valdecoxib 10 mg (BextraTM) compared to hydrocodone/acetaminophen 5/500 mg (VicodinTM) and placebo in reducing or relieving acute back pain induced by the golf swing in patients with OA of the lumbar spine. This study also examined the effects of these agents on golf swing performance. Methods This randomized, double-blind, cross-over, 12 week study compared the effects of a single dose of valdecoxib (10 mg), hydrocodone/acetaminophen (5/500 mg), and placebo, on an initial baseline measurement of subjective pain (SF-36, Oswestry) and the biomechanical assessment of the golf swing as measured during simulated golf play. A drug wash-out period of ≥7–10 days was utilized between each treatment arm. Golf swing performance was measured via Motion Analysis (240 Hz, 37 markers, 15 segment body) with emphasis on hip and shoulder trunk rotations and peak club head velocity. Data between treatement arms were compared with a RMANOVA (p≤.05) with a Bonferroni adjustment for post-hocs. Results Valdecoxib and hydrocodone/acetaminophen were clinically equal to each other and statistically superior to placebo and baseline measures in improving baseline SF-36 and Oswestry scores. These drugs also promoted greater hip (p≤.05) and shoulder rotations (p≤.05) and increased club head speed (p≤.05) compared to placebo and baseline measures. Conclusion In senior golfers with low back OA, a pre-emptive dose of valdecoxib (10 mg) is as effective as the opioid analgesic, hydrocodone/acetaminophen (5/500 mg), in alleviating golf-induced low back pain and improving golf swing performance as measured by greater hip and shoulder rotations as well as club head speed.

The short golf backswing: Effects on performance and spinal health implications

Background: Full recoil golf swings have been implicated in back pain and injury in golfers. Evidence suggests that a restricted backswing may reduce the potential for injury without compromising performance. Objective: To examine both golf swing performance and selected muscular actions of the trunk and shoulder during a full recoil swing as compared with a modified short backswing. Methods: Electromyographic (EMG) recordings were taken bilaterally from the lumbar, external oblique, latissimus dorsi, and right pectoral muscles in 7 golfers during a full recoil swing and a modified short backswing. High-speed videotape was used to measure back swing angle reduction. Clubhead velocity (CHV) and ball-contact accuracy were quantified by using a swing speed indicator and clubface contact tape, respectively. Results: Shortening of the backswing by 46.5° ± 24.7° had no effect on stroke accuracy as measured by mean deviation from the target spot on the club (19.0 ± 7.8 mm vs 19.3 ± 9.2 mm). CHV was not significantly reduced (33.9 ± 2.5 m/s vs 31.2 ± 2.2 m/s). However, EMG root-mean-square was decreased 19% in the right oblique muscle from 750 to 250 ms before impact (P < .05). During the acceleration phase, activation of left lumbar muscle decreased by 12%, whereas activation of right latissimus muscle increased by 21%. Although left lumbar muscle activity during the follow-through increased 14%, there was a substantial (17%) but nonsignificant decrease of activation of trunk muscles (P = .11). There was a general trend toward an increased activation of the shoulder musculature from 250 ms before impact to 500 ms after impact. Conclusion: These data support the idea that short backswings in golf may reduce trunk muscle activation and possibly reduce back injury and pain without negatively impacting swing accuracy or CHV. However, the short swing increases shoulder muscle activation and may, in turn, promote risk for shoulder injury. (J Manipulative Physiol Ther 2001;24:569-75)