Goat Herds Research Articles

Bio-typing of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis isolates recovered from the Himalayan sheep and goats.

Information on bio-type profile of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratubeculosis (MAP) in sheep flocks and goat herds of Himalayan region is not reported earlier. The aim of our study was to determine the bio-type of MAP infecting livestock of this region. A total of 71 faecal samples (sheep-57, goats-14) were screened by Ziehl-Neelsen (ZN) staining and IS900 PCR, and then processed for culture on Herrold's egg yolk medium (HEYM) having mycobactin J (MJ). Out of 71 faecal samples, MAP colonies were seen only in four samples (sheep-3 and goat-1). Isolates were confirmed as MAP on the basis of slow growth, acid fastness, MJ dependency, IS900 and IS1311 PCR. All the IS900 and IS1311 PCR positive samples were bio-typed by IS1311 PCR-REA (restriction endonuclease analysis), which confirmed all four isolates as 'bison type.' In IS1311 based phylogeny of MAP isolates by ClustalW method of the MegAlign program of DNASTAR Lasergene software, the four sequences of MAP isolates (NCBI sequence nos. MH988763, MH988765, MH988766 and MH988764) did not show any distinct clustering/grouping pattern. However, these four isolates showed a bit of closeness to the MAP sequences (KC990353.1 and KC990352.1) of 'bison type' isolated from wood bison in Canada. In conclusion, this is the first report on isolation and bio-type profile of MAP infecting sheep and goats of Himalayan region. Study will help in devising prevention and control strategies against spread of MAP infection in livestock population of Himalayan region.

RESISTÊNCIA PARASITÁRIA DE NEMATÓDEOS GASTRINTESTINAIS DE CAPRINOS CRIADOS EM REGIÃO SEMIÁRIDA DE PERNAMBUCO, NORDESTE DO BRASIL

Este estudo objetivou investigar a situação de resistência parasitária em propriedades rurais caprinas localizadas no município de Petrolina, região do Vale do São Francisco, Nordeste do Brasil. Um total de 420 caprinos de ambos os sexos e idades acima de sete meses foram selecionados em 10 diferentes propriedades. Cada estabelecimento foi constituído por seis grupos homogêneos de sete animais, conforme a administração dos medicamentos: Grupo I-Ivermectina 0,08%; Grupo II-Albendazole 10%; Grupo III-Levamisole 5%; Grupo IV-Moxidectina 1%; Grupo V-Closantel 10%; e Grupo VI-Controle (sem tratamento). As amostras foram coletadas nos dias D0 (prévio ao tratamento), D7, D14 e D21 pós-tratamento. Para avaliar a resistência parasitária, aplicou-se o teste de redução na contagem de ovos por grama de fezes (RCOF). Para identificação das larvas foi realizada a técnica de coprocultura. Os grupos tratados com Moxidectina apresentaram ineficácia no D7 e baixa eficácia no D14, com redução média de 79,8% e 88,69%, mas alta eficácia no D21 (93,43%). Closantel mostrou baixa eficácia com média de 84,72% apenas no D14. Levamisol, Albendazol e Ivermectina mostraram-se ineficazes, com médias inferiores a 80%. Todos os medicamentos testados, com exceção da Moxidectina (D21) apresentaram resultados inferiores a 90%, indicando a presença de parasitas multirresistentes nos rebanhos estudados.

Dairy Woes in Wisconsin: What about the Amish?

Wisconsin has steadily lost dairy farms for decades, yet the number of Amish dairy herds grew both numerically and proportionately into early 2018. Facing low milk prices, the overall rate of loss of dairy farms in Wisconsin accelerated since then. During 2019, the state lost over 1% of its dairy herds monthly, losing two to three herds daily. The expansion of Amish dairying also ended. Between April 1, 2018, when Wisconsin had 1,160 Amish dairy herds or 12.9% of the state's total, and November 1, 2019, the state lost 165 Amish herds. Losses are continuing.This paper focuses on the impact of the departure of many Amish farms from dairying, relying on examination of dairy producer licenses and a survey of bishops and ministers in Wisconsin's Amish church districts. The loss of Amish herds of dairy cows is greater than the overall departure of the Amish from dairying, inasmuch as the Amish have nearly doubled their milk goat herds over the past five years. Those settlements producing milk transported in cans have been more likely to leave dairying unless their community operates its own cheese factory. Yet dairying is declining in most Amish communities, other than in several recently established settlements. Expanding involvement in growing produce and in woodworking were seen.

Sarcoptic mange in wild ruminants in Spain: solving the epidemiological enigma using microsatellite markers

BackgroundIn Spain, sarcoptic mange was first described in native wildlife in 1987 in Cazorla Natural Park, causing the death of nearly 95% of the local native population of Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica). Since then, additional outbreaks have been identified in several populations of ibex and other wild ungulate species throughout the country. Although the first epizootic outbreak in wildlife was attributed to the introduction of an infected herd of domestic goats, the origin and the cause of its persistence remain unclear. The main aims of this study are to understand (i) the number of Sarcoptes scabiei “strains” circulating in wild ruminant populations in Spain, and (ii) the molecular epidemiological relationships between S. scabiei and its hosts.MethodsTen Sarcoptes microsatellite markers were used to characterize the genetic structure of 266 mites obtained from skin scrapings of 121 mangy wild ruminants between 2011 and 2019 from 11 areas in Spain.ResultsSeventy-three different alleles and 37 private alleles were detected. The results of this study show the existence of three genetic strains of S. scabiei in the wild ruminant populations investigated. While two genetic clusters of S. scabiei were host- and geography-related, one cluster included multi-host mites deriving from geographically distant populations.ConclusionsThe molecular epidemiological study of S. scabiei in wild ruminants in Spain indicates that the spreading and persistence of the parasite may be conditioned by host species community composition and the permissiveness of each host population/community to the circulation of individual “strains,” among other factors. Wildlife–livestock interactions and the role of human-driven introduction or trade of wild and domestic animals should be better investigated to prevent further spread of sarcoptic mange in as yet unaffected natural areas of the Iberian Peninsula.Graphical

Gamma-Gompertz shared frailty model for analysis of the time of stay in an Anglo-Nubian goat herd

Goats, even though adapted to tropical environments, are exposed to infection by endoparasites during grazing, which can negatively affect the time a female stays in the herd, compromising the breeding efficiency. In this context, the objective of this study was to evaluate a gamma-Gompertz shared frailty model for correction of unobserved heterogeneity attributed to the effects of unmeasured factors in analyzing the time of stay in a herd of Anglo-Nubian goats, using the survival analysis technique. The method was applied using data from records of 101 does born in the period 2009–2013 in an experimental herd located in the municipality of Teresina, Piauí, Brazil, where the replacement was carried out over four generations, with bulls from other herds and females incorporated regardless of the value of their EPG exam, to increase the variation of sensitivity to worms in the herd. The removal of a doe due to death caused by worm infection was considered the event of interest (failure) and losses due to other causes were considered censored events. According to the model selection criteria (AIC and BIC), the shared gamma-Gompertz frailty model stood out from the gamma shared frailty models with risk functions based on the Weibull and log-logistic distributions for the proposal studied. The gamma-Gompertz shared frailty model (with and without effect of observed factors) allowed observing a significant influence of the of year-season effect, indicating as frailty effects the differentiated death tendency between years (does born in 2011 in the rainy season and 2012 in the more fragile dry season). When associating the random effect to groups formed by goats descended from the same father, a significant association was observed between the times of goats belonging to such groups, with only 2 bulls showing more fragile daughters and consequently less permanence in the herd. The use of frailty models is relevant to meet the objectives of animal husbandry, as a technique to identify frailties due to the effects of factors that are difficult or costly to measure in bulls classified as having high genetic value. The simplicity and presentation of results in the form of graphs that are easy to understand make the method attractive for this type of research.

Resistance of strongylid nematodes to anthelmintic drugs and driving factors at Czech goat farms

BackgroundStrongylid nematode infections may negatively affect both animal health and welfare, with deleterious consequences for livestock productivity. Many farmers in recent decades have relied on anthelmintics as the sole strategy of control, but the intensive use of these chemotherapeutics has led to the development of anthelmintic resistance (AR). Knowledge of both the efficacy of anthelmintics and factors promoting AR are essential to effectively control nematode infections, but no information on these topics for goats in the Czech Republic (CR) is available. This survey aimed to determine the occurrence of AR at Czech goat farms and to identify risk factors for the development of AR. A total of 24 herds of dairy goats across the CR were evaluated using in vitro tests for detecting AR, and a questionnaire survey was carried out to evaluate factors associated with AR.ResultsResistance against benzimidazoles was confirmed at 18 (75%) farms, and the level of resistance was high in four (22%) of the affected herds based on the egg hatch test. Ivermectin-resistant nematodes were detected in 13 (54%) herds using the larval development test; Teladorsagia/Trichostrongylus and Haemonchus were the predominant types of resistant larvae. Eight (62%) of the affected herds were evaluated as highly resistant to ivermectin. Eleven (46%) of the herds were resistant to both benzimidazoles and ivermectin. This report is the first on dual AR in the CR. A univariate logistic regression analysis indicated that a high stocking rate and farmer inexperience were significantly associated with ivermectin and benzimidazole resistance, respectively.ConclusionsThe results of our survey suggest that AR is widespread amongst herds of dairy goats in the CR, likely due to inappropriate practices of pasture and health management. AR may be an issue for expanding dairy-goat production in the CR in the near future unless both veterinary practitioners and farmers widely adopt strategies to prevent the development of AR.

OLD ORDER DAIRY FARMERS IN WISCONSIN

Dairying among Wisconsin’s Amish and Old Order Mennonite farmers expanded through 2017, and by early 2018 Amish farms contained 12.9 percent of the state’s total dairy herds of cows, goats, and sheep. Old Order Mennonite herds comprised 5.0 percent. Faced with a variety of challenges, Wisconsin lost 198 Amish herds between April 2018 and July 2020, yet its number of Old Order Mennonite herds grew. Together, these groups operated over half of the dairy farms within 59 of Wisconsin’s towns in 2020. The paper examines the spatial patterns of expansion and contraction of Old Order dairying between 2012 and 2020, noting and explaining differences between the Amish and Mennonite farmers, as well as among the three conferences of Old Order Mennonites. Losses among the Amish were the greatest for can milk producers, yet 19 percent of Wisconsin’s Amish dairy herds were on certified organic farms in 2020.

Preliminary Investigation of Bovine Whole Blood Xenotransfusion as a Therapeutic Modality for the Treatment of Anemia in Goats.

Anemia requiring whole blood transfusion for appropriate treatment is a common clinical presentation of caprine patients to veterinary practitioners; however, identifying suitable blood donors in goat herds can be challenging. In other veterinary species, the practice of xenotransfusion, where blood from 1 species is transfused to another, is used in emergency settings. Due to their ability to donate large volumes of whole blood, cattle could be an ideal source for xenotransfusion of goats. In this study 2 healthy goats were transfused with bovine whole blood. The goats were then monitored for adverse effects and the presence of bovine erythrocyte post-xenotransfusion. Afterward, 15 caprine–bovine combinations were evaluated for compatibility via cross-matching. Both goats tolerated xenotransfusion, although transient reactions were observed. Of the 15 cross-match combinations, 11 of the major cross matches were compatible, and all minor cross matches were also compatible. While future work is necessary to refine this technique, xenotransfusion of goats with cattle blood may be a therapeutic modality for the treatment of caprine anemia.

Sexual Activity of Local Sahel Goat Breed in Niger

Aims: In Niger, the Sahel goat breed counts for around 80% of the national goat herd. However, it is scientifically little or not known. Thus, one of the aims of its zootechnical characterization is the control of its sexual activity, a fundamental physiological basis of reproductive function.
 Study Design: For this purpose, a sample of 47 Sahel goats in two phenotypically different sub-samples: from the Tahoua region (22) and Tillabéry region (25) was installed and monitored for heat control in order to characterize female sexual activities.
 Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted for a period of 9 months (January to September) at the experimental station of University of Niamey Faculty of Agronomy.
 Methodology: Heat controls by using harnessed males with a non-marking protective apron were carried out twice daily (8 am and 5 pm).
 Results: A total of 146 heats and 100 cycles were observed. It appeared that heat starts and ends mostly in the morning (76% and 70% respectively). Annual sexual activity has gone through two phases. A phase of an almost total rupture of heat from February to April and a phase of regular sexual activity from May to September and by extension the rest of the year. The mean duration of estrus and sexual cycle are respectively 35.75 ± 15.72 hours and 20.9 ± 9.7 days with strong individual variations (12 to 132 hours and 4 to 55 days for respective estrus and sexual cycle). The “T” test showed that there are no significant differences in these parameters between the two sub-samples (Tahoua and Tillabéry).
 Conclusion: Ultimately, the estrus and sexual cycle of Niger Sahel goat are common to those of the goat species in general.

Consensus of travel direction is achieved by simple copying, not voting, in free-ranging goats.

For group-living animals to remain cohesive they must agree on where to travel. Theoretical models predict shared group decisions should be favoured, and a number of empirical examples support this. However, the behavioural mechanisms that underpin shared decision-making are not fully understood. Groups may achieve consensus of direction by active communication of individual preferences (i.e. voting), or by responding to each other's orientation and movement (i.e. copying). For example, African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) are reported to use body orientation to vote and indicate their preferred direction to achieve a consensus on travel direction, while golden shiners (Notemigonus crysoleucas) achieve consensus of direction by responding to the movement cues of their neighbours. Here, we present a conceptual model (supported by agent-based simulations) that allows us to distinguish patterns of motion that represent voting or copying. We test our model predictions using high-resolution GPS and magnetometer data collected from a herd of free-ranging goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) in the Namib Desert, Namibia. We find that decisions concerning travel direction were more consistent with individuals copying one another's motion and find no evidence to support the use of voting with body orientation. Our findings highlight the role of simple behavioural rules for collective decision-making by animal groups.

Typology of Management of Transhumant Sheep and Goat Farms in Greece: Proposals for the System Continuity

Transhumant farming system is one of the earliest agricultural activities in Greece having an important role in the conservation of biodiversity, the preservation of rural tradition and cohesion of the rural population. The objective of this study was to construct a transhumant farm typology that could be used as a tool by the decision makers or farmers to improve the management of the farms. The required information was obtained from totally 551 Greek transhumant producers. A Principal Component Analysis gave five components related to the production cost of the farms, the intensity of management, the evolution of the extensive character of the system, the type of herds and the future of the system. Using multivariate techniques, a farm typology was established with four categories. The three categories, were characterized by lower production cost and intensification rate while preserved generally a more extensive character. Among them the first group defined as “evolution of the farming system” bred mainly sheep and producers were significantly more adaptive to some kind of innovations, the second group was constituted mainly by large goat herds while the third one by small sheep herds’. The fourth group, defined as the “intensive one” meaning high production cost, intensification rate and working hours per female as well as limitation of time spent grazing. Besides the definition of the character of the transhumance nowadays the results interestingly, highlighted the future of transhumant farms that tends to be doubtful for a number of farmers originated mainly by the last group.

Fertility, Live Weight, Survival Rate, Greasy Fleece Weight, and Quality Traits of Angora Goats in Turkey

The aim of this study was to investigate the fertility, live weight, survival rate, greasy fleece weight, and quality traits of Angora goat herds in an animal breeding program in Turkey. The animals utilized in the study were from a public breeding project conducted by the General Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policy in the Ankara Province, specifically, on 25,917 goats in the Ayaş, Beypazarı, Güdül, Kızılcahamam, Nallıhan, and Polatlı districts of the Ankara Province in 2018. The average birth rate in the goats and the number of kids during birth were 87.5 % and 1.05 %, respectively. The 90th day survival rate was 78.48 % for the kids. The birth weight for the male kids was 2.45 ± 0.057 kg, and the average birth weight was 2.32 ± 0.055 kg for the female kids. Also, the birth weight on the 90th day of the experiment were 12.37 ± 3.33 kg and 10.94 ± 4.79 kg for the males and female kids, respectively. The greasy fleece weight of the Angora Goats in the Ayaş, Beypazarı, Güdül, Kızılcahamam, Nallıhan, and Polatlı districts were measured as 1.77 ± 0.62, 1.64 ± 0.83, 1.73 ± 0.57 2.06 ± 0.84, 1.78 ± 0.55, and 2.00 ± 0.58 kg, respectively. Moreover, the fiber diameter of these goats were 33.53 ± 4.95, 31.68 ± 4.50, 33.12 ± 5.18, 31.25 ± 4.11, 31.99 ± 4.50, and 32.39 ± 4.17 μ for the same districts, respectively. In the study, it was determined that the district, mother’s age, birth type, and sex affected kid birth weight (p < 0.001). While the district and age had a significant effect on the goat’s greasy fleece weight, the district, age, and greasy fleece weight significantly influenced the fiber diameter (p < 0.001). The 90th day body weight was affected by the district, mother’s age, type of birth, and sex. In line with these data, it can be concluded that the utilization of the fleece, fiber diameter, and birth weight as parameters can provide favorable results in the establishment of a breeding value index to improve the goat flocks.

Serological and Molecular Characterization of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) from Sheep, Goats, Cattle and Camels in the Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia.

Simple SummaryMycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is the causative agent of Johne’s disease, affecting small and large ruminants and causing chronic diarrhea and severe emaciation. MAP is prevalent in many countries, including Saudi Arabia. Serological and molecular characterization of MAP and determination of the prevalent strains are essential for the control strategies. The results obtained from 31 herds showed that the sheep type (S-type) was the most prevalent MAP type and the molecular characterization revealed different strain profiles distributed among the sheep, goat, cattle, and camel herds in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia.The objectives of the present study were to characterize Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) infection using serological and molecular tools and investigate the distribution and molecular characterization of MAP strains (cattle (C) and sheep (S) types) in sheep, goat, cattle, and camel herds in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia. Serum and fecal samples were collected from all animals aged >2 years old in 31 herds (sheep = 8, goats = 6, cattle = 8 and camels = 9) from January to December 2019. Serum samples were tested by ELISA for the detection of MAP antibodies. Fecal samples were tested by PCR for the detection of MAP IS900 gene and the identification of MAP strains. MAP antibodies were detected in 19 (61.3%) herds. At the animal level, antibodies against MAP were detected in 43 (19.5%) sheep, 21 (17.1%) goats, 13 (19.7%) cattle and 22 (9.1%) camels. The IS900 gene of MAP was detected in 23 (74.2%) herds and was directly amplified from fecal samples of 59 (26.8%) sheep, 34 (27.6%) goats, 20 (30.3%) cattle and 36 (15.0%) camels. The S-type was the most prevalent MAP type identified in 15 herds, and all were identified as type-I, while the C-type was identified in only 8 herds. The IS900 sequences revealed genetic differences among the MAP isolates recovered from sheep, goats, cattle and camels. Results from the present study show that MAP was prevalent and confirm the distribution of different MAP strains in sheep, goat, cattle and camel herds in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia.

No Detection of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Dairy Goats

This short communication addresses the hypothesis that the prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is low in dairy goats in Sweden. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus is a widespread zoonotic bacterium of clinical importance in both animals and humans. In Sweden, MRSA is rare among both animals and humans. However, MRSA has been detected in a few goat herds in Sweden with a high within-herd occurrence of mecC-MRSA, but only a limited number of herds were investigated and most of them were not producing milk for human consumption. The prevalence of MRSA among dairy goat herds in Sweden is not known and a cross-sectional prevalence study was therefore conducted. A total of 22 bulk milk samples from the same number of herds, and pooled swabs from nose, mouth, and perineum from 113 goats, were collected during August and September 2019 for bacteriological investigation. After culturing on selective media, suspected isolates were confirmed as S. aureus using MALDI-TOF and subjected to PCR targeting the mecA and mecC genes to confirm MRSA status. No samples were found to be positive for MRSA, and there are therefore no indications of a spread of MRSA in Swedish dairy goat herds.

Spatial autocorrelation and co-occurrence of six serovarieties of Leptospira in goat herds of the State of Guanajuato, Mexico.

The epidemiological behavior of six Leptospira serovarieties was analyzed by spatial autocorrelation and co-occurrence of leptospirosis, diagnosed in goat herds located in the State of Guanajuato, Mexico. A total of 1650 goat serum samples were analyzed by microscopic agglutination (MAT). True prevalence (Pv) and 95% confidence interval (CI95) were determined. Spatial autocorrelation was calculated using the spdep package, applying the global Moran's I and local Moran's I of Leptospira in Guanajuato. The probabilistic model of co-occurrence was applied using the co-occur package. Seroprevalence in the State was found to be 45.5% (CI95 42.96; 48.06%). The highest registered frequency was for the Icterohemorrhagiae serovar (Pv 34.16%; CI95 31.74, 36.65%), followed by the serovar Hardjo-prajitno (Pv: 6.77%; CI95 5.33, 8.40%). Other serovarieties showed a Pv < 5%. Global spatial autocorrelation, only for the Icterohemorrhagiae serovar, was I > 1, while local Moran's I revealed that five of the six Leptospira serovarieties were spatially correlated. The probabilistic model of co-occurrence detected negative associations between Icterohemorrhagiae and the other serovarieties. The current study demonstrates the presence of Leptospira in goat herds of the State of Guanajuato. The diagnosed serovarieties show an aggregation pattern associated to risk zones and disease-transmitting vectors. Antibody co-occurrence analysis revealed dominance of the Icterohemorrhagiae serovar. A multidisciplinary approach including spatial epidemiology, ecological analyses, and serological vigilance will generate useful information for the prevention and control of leptospirosis in caprine production units.

Prevalence of anthelmintic resistance of gastrointestinal nematodes in Polish goat herds assessed by the larval development test

BackgroundHelminthic infections, in particular those caused by gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN), are found worldwide and are among the most economically important diseases of goats. Anthelmintic resistance (AR) in GIN of goats is currently present worldwide, and single- or multidrug resistant species are widespread. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of AR to benzimidazoles (BZ), macrocyclic lactones (ML) and imidazothiazoles represented by levamisole (LEV) in the Polish goat herds by using an in vitro larval development test, which is useful especially in large-scale epidemiological surveys.ResultsThis cross-sectional study was conducted from September 2018 to June 2019 and enrolled 42 dairy goat herds scattered over the entire country. The most commonly used anthelmintic class in goat herds in Poland were BZ (92%), followed by ML (85%) and LEV (13%). BZ-resistant GIN populations were found in 37 herds (88%, CI 95%: 75 to 95%), ML-resistant GIN populations in 40 herds (95%, CI 95, 84 to 99%), and LEV-resistant GIN populations in 5 herds (12%, CI 95%: 5 to 25%). Multidrug resistance involving all three anthelmintic classes was found in 5 herds (12%, CI 95, 5 to 25%). Based on the morphological features of stage 3 larvae the main resistant GIN turned out to be Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus spp. The use of BZ and frequency of anthelmintic treatments were significantly related to the presence of AR to BZ in Polish goat herds.ConclusionsThis cross-sectional study demonstrates the existence of AR to BZ, ML and LEV on Polish goat farms. Resistance to BZ and ML is widespread, while AR to LEV is currently at a low level. A considerable proportion of herds harbours multidrug resistant GIN, which requires further consideration. An effective anthelmintic treatment strategy, reasonable preventive measures and better understanding of the resistance-related management practices by farmers and veterinarians may delay further development of AR.

THE HERD STRUCTURE OF BREEDING DOES OF SMALL HOLDER RED SOKOTO GOAT

A study to ascertain the heard structure of breeding does of small holder goat production system was conducted in Kano using l5 goat herds selected at random in 3 villages.A total of 250 breeding does were involved. The results indicate that parity of does in the observed herds ranged from one to ten.Twelve percent of the does within the age range, 5-25 months were yet to kid for the first time.In the herds, does that did not kid at least once, up to the age of 25 months were culled. However, majorities of the does were in their 2nd and 3rd parities and within the age range of 12-25 months. Twinning was common at 1st parity, irrespective of the age of does. Parity and litter size of does were the major determining factors on the observed herd structure for the breeding does.The observed structure indicates that &lt;12 months does constitute 20% of the herd; 12-25 months 48%; 26-39months 11.2% and; &gt; 40months 20.8%.Breeding does leave the herds starting from the 25th month of age at parity 2,4, 7 and 10, respectively.

Natural Infection of Goats with Orf (Contagious ecthyma) and Its Diagnosis

Background: The Study was intended to evaluate some common diagnostics that could supplement the clinical and histological identification of orf in goats. Methods: Samples from suspected clinical cases of orf (Contagious ecthyma) were collected from various organized and unorganized goat herds around Guwahati, Assam. Presumptive diagnosis was based on the typical signs and lesions. For confirmatory diagnosis, various molecular and immunoassays were employed for the detection of orf virus or circulating antibodies. Result: Cutaneous lesions observed included solitary to multifocal erythema, papules, vesicles, pustules and scab stages on the lips, ears, gums, tongue, udder and perineal region. No mortality was observed and the morbidity rate varied between 35-60%. Microscopic lesions in skin biopsies were typically marked by epidermal hyperplasia and ballooning degeneration of the keratinocytes along with other changes. Eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies were demonstrable within keratinocytes only in early papulo-vesicular stages. Dermis was infiltrated with polymorphonuclear and mononuclear cells in varying proportions. Initial screening of samples was done with PCR systems to specifically detect parapoxvirus DNA employing a semi-nested PCR targeted against the partial B2L gene (with reported primers yielding 594 bp and 235 bp amplified products) and an uniplex PCR targeting the whole B2L gene (with reported primer set to yield an amplified product of 1206 bp). Agar gel immuno-diffusion (AGID) failed to develop positive immunoprecipitation with hyperimmune serum against scab lysates; however, counter-immuno-electrophoresis (CIE) showed positive immunoprecipitation in the same samples. For rapid and in situ detection of ORFV antigen in tissues, immunofluorescent and immunoperoxidase techniques were successfully employed both on cryosections and formalin fixed skin biopsies. Immunofluorescent technique on cryosections was found to be easy, rapid and more specific. A dot-ELISA was also developed for successful confirmation of orf virus from clinical samples. For antibody detection in convalescing goats, an indirect-ELISA and a dot-ELISA was also successfully tested to demonstrate for antibody detection in convalescing goats, but protective titres later after infection was not addressed. Monoclonal antibody employed in the assays was found to be specific, sensitive and versatile for virus detection from direct clinical samples. It is contemplated that assays employing hyperimmune sera or detection of circulating antibody against orf virus may have limited diagnostic applications owing to its partial and transient humoral immunity and the inherent property of the virus to modulate and interfere with the host response and evade immune mechanisms.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SMALLHOLDER SHEEP AND GOAT MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN SOUTH EAST NIGERIA: OBSERVATIONS FROM ANAMBRA STATE

This paper presents the results of a survey of sheep and goat producers in Anambra State, (present day Enugu and Anambra State), Nigeria. The sampled areas represent the agroclimatic and administrative zones of the oid Anambra State. A total sample size of 310 spread over 5 LGAS and 25 village areas was drawn. Only households which kept sheep and/or goats at the time of the study were sampled. Data generated included demographic characteristics of small stock owners, sheep and goat distribution by household, management practices and problems associated with current management systems, sources of feed by season and livestock disease profile. Results of analyses showed that ownership distribution of animals was skewed in favour of goats. The mean flock size per household was 2.4 and 6.2 sheep and goats respectively. About 22% of the households interviewed kept sheep alone, another 62% kept goats alone. Over 85% of respondents acquired their foundation stock from the open market, while others came from neighbours flocks. Most respondents expressed the desire to increase their holdings with more wishing to expand their goat herd size than sheep. However, feeding was most frequently mentioned as a limiting factor in increasing sheep or goat herd size. Household wastes and cut forages were the major sources of animal feed. There was a very low awareness level of agroforestry practices, Only 5.2% and 2.3% of the respondents had any knowledge of Intensive Feed Gardening (IFG) and Alley farming (AF) respectively. Reported Smallholder Sheep and Goats Management mortality was low less than 3.5% in all herds studied). Implications for improved small ruminant production in Nigeria's humid zone are drawn.

Prevalence of suspected peste des petits ruminants infection and complicating bacteria in goats in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria

Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is endemic in Nigeria and causes major economic losses due to the high rates of mortality and morbidity in infected domestic sheep and goats. The outbreak of PPR in some goat herds was observed in the Abeokuta area of Ogun State, Nigeria, between January and August, 2014. Amongst the herds affected were those of the research animal in the Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta. The goat herds were located in the Directorate of the University Farms (DUFARMS), the University environments and Apakila. The goats were intensively managed on concentrates and Panicum maximiun grass. The morbidity rates were 80-100 per cent in all the herds while mortality rates varied from 10% to 70%. Disease diagnosis was based on history, clinical signs and Post-mortem lesions. Complicating secondary bacteria were isolated from nasal and ocular discharges, which isolated, identified and sensitivity results obtained from laboratory tests. Treatments were carried out with sensitive antibiotics, analgesics and fluid therapy in a symptomatic approach. We conclude that PPR is endemic in this area of study and is responsible for a great loss in goat production and poverty of the rural goat farmers. We recommend that vaccination against PPR in this study area be instituted to avert the deleterious effects of the disease.