Glyoxalase I Research Articles

Genomic identification, characterization, and stress-induced expression profiling of glyoxalase and D-lactate dehydrogenase gene families in Capsicum annuum

BackgroundCapsicum annuum, a significant agricultural and nutritional crop, faces production challenges due to its sensitivity to various abiotic stresses. Glyoxalase (GLY) and D-lactate dehydrogenase (D-LDH) enzymes play vital roles in mitigating these stresses by detoxifying the stress-induced cytotoxin, methylglyoxal (MG).MethodsA genome-wide study was conducted to identify and characterize glyoxalase I (GLYI), glyoxalase II (GLYII), unique glyoxalase III or DJ-1 (GLYIII), and D-LDH gene candidates in Capsicum annuum. The identified members were evaluated based on their evolutionary relationships with known orthologues, as well as their gene and protein features. Their expression patterns were examined in various tissues, developmental stages, and in response to abiotic stress conditions using RNA-seq data and qRT-PCR.ResultsA total of 19 GLYI, 9 GLYII, 3 DJ-1, and 11 D-LDH members were identified, each featuring characteristic domains: glyoxalase, metallo-β-lactamase, DJ-1_PfpI, and FAD_binding_4, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis revealed distinct clades depending on functional diversification. Expression profiling demonstrated significant variability under stress conditions, underscoring their potential roles in stress modulation. Notably, gene-specific responses were observed with CaGLYI-2, CaGLYI-7, CaGLYII-6, CaDJ-1 A, and CaDLDH-1 showed upregulation under salinity, drought, oxidative, heat, and cold stresses, while downregulation were shown for CaGLYI-3, CaGLYII-1, CaDJ-1B, and CaDJ-1 C. Remarkably, CaGLYI-1 presented a unique expression pattern, upregulated against drought and salinity but downregulated under oxidative, heat, and cold stress.ConclusionThe identified GLY and D-LDH gene families in Capsicum annuum exhibited differential expression patterns under different abiotic stresses. Specifically, CaGLYI-2, CaGLYI-7, CaGLYII-6, CaDJ-1 A, and CaDLDH-1 were upregulated in response to all five analyzed abiotic stressors, highlighting their critical role in stress modulation amidst climate change. This study enhances our understanding of plant stress physiology and opens new avenues for developing stress-resilient crop varieties, crucial for sustainable agriculture.

Genome-Wide Analysis and Expression Profiling of Glyoxalase Gene Families Under Abiotic Stresses in Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.)

The glyoxalase pathway, consisting of glyoxalase I (GLYI) and glyoxalase II (GLYII), is an enzymatic system that converts cytotoxic methylglyoxal to non-toxic S-D-lactoylglutathione. Although the GLY gene family has been analyzed in Arabidopsis, rice, grape, cabbage, and soybean, cucumber studies are lacking. Here, we analyzed the cucumber GLY gene family, identifying 13 CsGLYI and 2 CsGLYII genes. Furthermore, we investigated the physicochemical properties, phylogenetic relationships, chromosomal localization and colinearity, gene structure, conserved motifs, cis-regulatory elements, and protein–protein interaction networks of the CsGLY family. They were primarily localized in the cytoplasm, chloroplasts, and mitochondria, with a minor presence in the nucleus. The classification of CsGLYI and CsGLYII genes into five classes closely resembled the homologous genes in Arabidopsis and soybean. Additionally, hormone-responsive elements dominated the promoter region of GLY genes, alongside light- and stress-responsive elements. The predicted interaction proteins of CsGLYIs and CsGLYIIs exerted a significant role in cellular respiration, amino acid synthesis, and metabolism, as well as methylglyoxal catabolism. In addition, the expression profiles of GLY genes were distinct in different tissues of cucumber as well as under diverse abiotic stresses. This study is conducive to the further exploration of the functional diversity among glyoxalase genes and the mechanisms of stress responses in cucumber.

The Maize Gene ZmGLYI-8 Confers Salt and Drought Tolerance in Transgenic Arabidopsis Plants.

Methylglyoxal (MG), a highly reactive and cytotoxic α-oxoaldehyde compound, can over-accumulate under abiotic stress, consequently injuring plants or even causing death. Glyoxalase I (GLYI), the first enzyme of the glyoxalase pathway, plays multiple roles in the detoxification of MG and in abiotic stress responses. However, the GLY1 gene in maize has been little studied in response to abiotic stress. In this study, we screened a glyoxalase I gene (ZmGLYI-8) and overexpressed in Arabidopsis. This gene was localized in the cytoplasm and can be induced in maize seedlings under multiple stress treatments, including salt, drought, MG, ABA, H2O2 and high temperature stress. Phenotypic analysis revealed that after MG, salt and drought stress treatments, overexpression of ZmGLYI-8 increased the tolerance of transgenic Arabidopsis to MG, salt and drought stress. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the overexpression of ZmGLYI-8 scavenges accumulated reactive oxygen species, detoxifies MG and enhances the activity of antioxidant enzymes to improve the resistance of transgenic Arabidopsis plants to salt and drought stress. In summary, this study preliminarily elucidates the molecular mechanism of the maize ZmGLYI-8 gene in transgenic Arabidopsis and provides new insight into the breeding of salt- and drought-tolerant maize varieties.

MeGLYI-13, a Glyoxalase I Gene in Cassava, Enhances the Tolerance of Yeast and Arabidopsis to Zinc and Copper Stresses.

Although zinc and copper are the two essential nutrients necessary for plant growth, their excessive accumulation in soil not only causes environmental pollution but also seriously threatens human health and inhibits plant growth. The breeding of plants with novel zinc or copper toxicity tolerance capacities represents one strategy to address this problem. Glyoxalase I (GLYI) family genes have previously been suggested to be involved in the resistance to a wide range of abiotic stresses, including those invoked by heavy metals. Here, a MeGLYI-13 gene cloned from a cassava SC8 cultivar was characterized with regard to its potential ability in resistance to zinc or copper stresses. Sequence alignment indicated that MeGLYI-13 exhibits sequence differences between genotypes. Transient expression analysis revealed the nuclear localization of MeGLYI-13. A nuclear localization signal (NLS) was found in its C-terminal region. There are 12 Zn2+ binding sites and 14 Cu2+ binding sites predicted by the MIB tool, of which six binding sites were shared by Zn2+ and Cu2+. The overexpression of MeGLYI-13 enhanced both the zinc and copper toxicity tolerances of transformed yeast cells and Arabidopsis seedlings. Taken together, our study shows the ability of the MeGLYI-13 gene to resist zinc and copper toxicity, which provides genetic resources for the future breeding of plants resistant to zinc and copper and potentially other heavy metals.

Identification and molecular evolution of the GLX genes in 21 plant species: a focus on the Gossypium hirsutum

BackgroundThe glyoxalase system includes glyoxalase I (GLXI), glyoxalase II (GLXII) and glyoxalase III (GLXIII), which are responsible for methylglyoxal (MG) detoxification and involved in abiotic stress responses such as drought, salinity and heavy metal.ResultsIn this study, a total of 620 GLX family genes were identified from 21 different plant species. The results of evolutionary analysis showed that GLX genes exist in all species from lower plants to higher plants, inferring that GLX genes might be important for plants, and GLXI and GLXII account for the majority. In addition, motif showed an expanding trend in the process of evolution. The analysis of cis-acting elements in 21 different plant species showed that the promoter region of the GLX genes were rich in phytohormones and biotic and abiotic stress-related elements, indicating that GLX genes can participate in a variety of life processes. In cotton, GLXs could be divided into two groups and most GLXIs distributed in group I, GLXIIs and GLXIIIs mainly belonged to group II, indicating that there are more similarities between GLXII and GLXIII in cotton evolution. The transcriptome data analysis and quantitative real-time PCR analysis (qRT-PCR) show that some members of GLX family would respond to high temperature treatment in G.hirsutum. The protein interaction network of GLXs in G.hirsutum implied that most members can participate in various life processes through protein interactions.ConclusionsThe results elucidated the evolutionary history of GLX family genes in plants and lay the foundation for their functions analysis in cotton.

A thermodynamic and kinetic HO radical scavenging study and protein binding of baicalein

Baicalein (BOH) is an essential flavone molecule with proven significant scavenging activity towards various reactive species, although the actual mechanism has not been fully elucidated. Three common mechanisms: Hydrogen Atom Abstraction (HAA), Radical Adduct Formation (RAF), and Electron Transfer (EA), for the reaction between BOH and HO• have been investigated thermodynamically and kinetically in water and penthylethanoate. Based on the pKa values of BOH, the percentages of various acid-base species were estimated and subsequently incorporated into the described procedures. Changes in Gibbs free energy of HAA reactions demonstrated the spontaneity of hydrogen transfer from each OH group of BOH with reaction rates of 1.8 × 107 and 7.5 × 104 M−1 s−1. This process occurred through Proton Coupled-Electron Transfer (PCET) mechanism. Reactions involving RAF processes were operable in six places, with rate constants ranging from 4.8 × 104 to 3.0 × 108 M−1 s−1. Reaction rates calculated for electron transfer from anionic species (BO-) were the kinetically most favorable reaction pathway of the order of 109 M−1 s−1, which unequivocally shows that these reactions are diffusion controlled. These results shed new light on BOH chemistry and its possible medical use. The molecular docking analysis was performed to identify the inhibition potency of the baicalein-anion against Glyoxalase I (GLOI) receptor. This study demonstrated that molecular docking analysis is an important tool for evaluating the interactions of biologically significant compounds, particularly their many acid-base forms.

Genome-Wide Identification and Functional Characterization of Stress Related Glyoxalase Genes in Brassica napus L.

Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) is not only one of the most important oil crops in the world, but it is also an important vegetable crop with a high value nutrients and metabolites. However, rapeseed is often severely damaged by adverse stresses, such as low temperature, pathogen infection and so on. Glyoxalase I (GLYI) and glyoxalase II (GLYII) are two enzymes responsible for the detoxification of a cytotoxic metabolite methylglyoxal (MG) into the nontoxic S-D-lactoylglutathione, which plays crucial roles in stress tolerance in plants. Considering the important roles of glyoxalases, the GLY gene families have been analyzed in higher plans, such as rice, soybean and Chinese cabbage; however, little is known about the presence, distribution, localizations and expression of glyoxalase genes in rapeseed, a young allotetraploid. In this study, a total of 35 BnaGLYI and 30 BnaGLYII genes were identified in the B. napus genome and were clustered into six and eight subfamilies, respectively. The classification, chromosomal distribution, gene structure and conserved motif were identified or predicted. BnaGLYI and BnaGLYII proteins were mainly localized in chloroplast and cytoplasm. By using publicly available RNA-seq data and a quantitative real-time PCR analysis (qRT-PCR), the expression profiling of these genes of different tissues was demonstrated in different developmental stages as well as under stresses. The results indicated that their expression profiles varied among different tissues. Some members are highly expressed in specific tissues, BnaGLYI11 and BnaGLYI27 expressed in flowers and germinating seed. At the same time, the two genes were significantly up-regulated under heat, cold and freezing stresses. Notably, a number of BnaGLY genes showed responses to Plasmodiophora brassicae infection. Overexpression of BnGLYI11 gene in Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings confirmed that this gene conferred freezing tolerance. This study provides insight of the BnaGLYI and BnaGLYII gene families in allotetraploid B. napus and their roles in stress resistance, and important information and gene resources for developing stress resistant vegetable and rapeseed oil.

A glutathione-independent DJ-1/PfpI domain-containing tomato glyoxalaseIII2, SlGLYIII2, confers enhanced tolerance under salt and osmotic stresses.

In plants, glyoxalase enzymes are activated under stress conditions to mitigate the toxic effects of hyperaccumulated methylglyoxal (MG), a highly reactive carbonyl compound. Until recently, a glutathione-dependent bi-enzymatic pathway involving glyoxalase I (GLYI) and glyoxalase II (GLYII) was considered the primary MG-detoxification system. Recently, a new glutathione-independent glyoxalase III (GLYIII) mediated direct route was also reported in plants. However, the physiological significance of this new pathway remains to be elucidated across plant species. This study identified the full complement of 22 glyoxalases in tomato. Based on their strong induction under multiple abiotic stresses, SlGLYI4, SlGLYII2 and SlGLYIII2 were selected candidates for further functional characterisation. Stress-inducible overexpression of both glutathione-dependent (SlGLYI4 + SlGLYII2) and independent (SlGLYIII2) pathways led to enhanced tolerance in both sets of transgenic plants under abiotic stresses. However, SlGLYIII2 overexpression (OE) plants outperformed the SlGLYI4 + SlGLYII2 OE counterparts for their stress tolerance under abiotic stresses. Further, knockdown of SlGLYIII2 resulted in plants with exacerbated stress responses than those silenced for both SlGLYI4 and SlGLYII2. The superior performance of SlGLYIII2 OE tomato plants for better growth and yield under salt and osmotic treatments could be attributed to better GSH/GSSG ratio, lower reactive oxygen species levels, and enhanced antioxidant potential, indicating a prominent role of GLYIII MG-detoxification pathway in abiotic stress mitigation in this species.

Mitigation of salt stress on low temperature in bermudagrass: resistance and forage quality.

Climate change causes plants encountering several abiotic stresses simultaneously. Responses of plants to a single stress has been comprehensively studied, but it is hard to speculated infer the effects of stress combination based on these researches. Here, the response mechanism of bermudagrass to low temperature and salt treatment was investigated in this study. The results showed that low temperature (LT) treatment decreased the relative growth rate, chlorophyll fluorescence transient curve, biomass, and crude fat content of bermudagrass, whereas low temperature + salt (LT+S) treatment greatly undermined these declines. Furthermore, at 6h and 17d, the expression levels of glyoxalase I (GLYI), Cu-Zn/superoxide dismutase (Cu-Zn/SOD), peroxidase 2 (POD2), and oxidative enzyme 1(CAT1) in roots were considerably higher in the low temperature + salt treatment than in the low temperature treatment. Low temperature stress is more detrimental to bermudagrass, but mild salt addition can mitigate the damage by enhancing photosynthesis and improving the expression of antioxidant system genes (Cu-Zn/SOD, POD2 and CAT1) and glyoxalase system GLYI gene in roots. This study summarized the probable interaction mechanism of low temperature and salt stress on bermudagrass, which can provide beneficial reference for the growth of fodder in cold regions.

Glyoxalase I activity affects Arabidopsis sensitivity to ammonium nutrition

Key messageElevated methylglyoxal levels contribute to ammonium-induced growth disorders in Arabidopsis thaliana. Methylglyoxal detoxification pathway limitation, mainly the glyoxalase I activity, leads to enhanced sensitivity of plants to ammonium nutrition.Ammonium applied to plants as the exclusive source of nitrogen often triggers multiple phenotypic effects, with severe growth inhibition being the most prominent symptom. Glycolytic flux increase, leading to overproduction of its toxic by-product methylglyoxal (MG), is one of the major metabolic consequences of long-term ammonium nutrition. This study aimed to evaluate the influence of MG metabolism on ammonium-dependent growth restriction in Arabidopsis thaliana plants. As the level of MG in plant cells is maintained by the glyoxalase (GLX) system, we analyzed MG-related metabolism in plants with a dysfunctional glyoxalase pathway. We report that MG detoxification, based on glutathione-dependent glyoxalases, is crucial for plants exposed to ammonium nutrition, and its essential role in ammonium sensitivity relays on glyoxalase I (GLXI) activity. Our results indicated that the accumulation of MG-derived advanced glycation end products significantly contributes to the incidence of ammonium toxicity symptoms. Using A. thaliana frostbite1 as a model plant that overcomes growth repression on ammonium, we have shown that its resistance to enhanced MG levels is based on increased GLXI activity and tolerance to elevated MG-derived advanced glycation end-product (MAGE) levels. Furthermore, our results show that glyoxalase pathway activity strongly affects cellular antioxidative systems. Under stress conditions, the disruption of the MG detoxification pathway limits the functioning of antioxidant defense. However, under optimal growth conditions, a defect in the MG detoxification route results in the activation of antioxidative systems.

Análisis de glioxalasa I (GLX-I) en maíces nativos de Oaxaca, México, infectados con Aspergillus flavus in vitro

The glyoxalase system plays an important role in various physiological processes in plants when they are subjected to different types of stress, whether physical, chemical or biological. Aspergillus flavus is an aflatoxin-producing fungus that contaminates dry grains, leading to a gradual deterioration of the grains and a significant reduction in their nutritional value. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the activity of the enzyme glyoxalase I (GLX-I) in maize coleoptiles from Oaxaca in response to infection caused by Aspergillus flavus. Nine maize samples from four different races were analyzed. The samples were inoculated with a suspension of Aspergillus flavus spores of known concentration and total protein extraction and quantification were performed on the coleoptiles, and GLX-I activity was determined by quantifying the amount of S-lactoylglutathione produced per minute. In addition, analysis of gene expression by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was performed. The inoculated maize coleoptiles showed symptoms of infection, color changes and wilting. The concentration of total proteins decreased significantly in the extracts of four samples in the presence of the fungus. In the GLX-I analysis, two samples had the highest enzymatic activity in the infected coleoptile extract with respect to the healthy one, in addition to presenting greater expression of the gene in the RT-PCR assay, this due to the response to Aspergillus flavus infection.

Genome-Wide Expression Analysis of Glyoxalase I Genes Under Hyperosmotic Stress and Existence of a Stress-Responsive Mitochondrial Glyoxalase I Activity in Durum Wheat (Triticum durum Desf.).

Glyoxalase I (GLYI) catalyzes the rate-limiting step of the glyoxalase pathway that, in the presence of GSH, detoxifies the cytotoxic molecule methylglyoxal (MG) into the non-toxic D-lactate. In plants, MG levels rise under various abiotic stresses, so GLYI may play a crucial role in providing stress tolerance. In this study, a comprehensive genome database analysis was performed in durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.), identifying 27 candidate GLYI genes (TdGLYI). However, further analyses of phylogenetic relationships and conserved GLYI binding sites indicated that only nine genes encode for putative functionally active TdGLYI enzymes, whose distribution was predicted in three different subcellular compartments, namely cytoplasm, plastids and mitochondria. Expression profile by qRT-PCR analysis revealed that most of the putative active TdGLYI genes were up-regulated by salt and osmotic stress in roots and shoots from 4-day-old seedlings, although a different behavior was observed between the two types of stress and tissue. Accordingly, in the same tissues, hyperosmotic stress induced an increase (up to about 40%) of both GLYI activity and MG content as well as a decrease of GSH (up to about –60%) and an increase of GSSG content (up to about 7-fold) with a consequent strong decrease of the GSH/GSSG ratio (up to about –95%). Interestingly, in this study, we reported the first demonstration of the existence of GLYI activity in highly purified mitochondrial fraction. In particular, GLYI activity was measured in mitochondria from durum wheat (DWM), showing hyperbolic kinetics with Km and Vmax values equal to 92 ± 0.2 μM and 0.519 ± 0.004 μmol min–1 mg–1 of proteins, respectively. DWM–GLYI resulted inhibited in a competitive manner by GSH (Ki = 6.5 ± 0.7 mM), activated by Zn2+ and increased, up to about 35 and 55%, under salt and osmotic stress, respectively. In the whole, this study provides basis about the physiological significance of GLYI in durum wheat, by highlighting the role of this enzyme in the early response of seedlings to hyperosmotic stress. Finally, our results strongly suggest the existence of a complete mitochondrial GLYI pathway in durum wheat actively involved in MG detoxification under hyperosmotic stress.

Genome-Wide Identification of Cassava Glyoxalase I Genes and the Potential Function of MeGLYⅠ-13 in Iron Toxicity Tolerance.

Glyoxalase I (GLYI) is a key enzyme in the pathway of the glyoxalase system that degrades the toxic substance methylglyoxal, which plays a crucial part in plant growth, development, and stress response. A total of 19 GLYI genes were identified from the cassava genome, which distributed randomly on 11 chromosomes. These genes were named MeGLYI-1–19 and were systematically characterized. Transcriptome data analysis showed that MeGLYIs gene expression is tissue-specific, and MeGLYI-13 is the dominant gene expressed in young tissues, while MeGLYI-19 is the dominant gene expressed in mature tissues and organs. qRT-PCR analysis showed that MeGLYI-13 is upregulated under 2 h excess iron stress, but downregulated under 6, 12, and 20 h iron stress. Overexpression of MeGLYI-13 enhanced the growth ability of transgenic yeast under iron stress. The root growth of transgenic Arabidopsis seedlings was less inhibited by iron toxicity than that of the wild type (WT). Potted transgenic Arabidopsis blossomed and podded under iron stress, but flowering of the WT was significantly delayed. The GLYI activity in transgenic Arabidopsis was improved under both non-iron stress and iron stress conditions compared to the WT. The SOD activity in transgenic plants was increased under iron stress, while the POD and CAT activity and MDA content were decreased compared to that in the WT. These results provide a basis for the selection of candidate genes for iron toxicity tolerance in cassava, and lay a theoretical foundation for further studies on the functions of these MeGLYI genes.

1,8 cineole protects type 2 diabetic rats against diabetic nephropathy via inducing the activity of glyoxalase-I and lowering the level of transforming growth factor-1β.

Diabetes leading to the production and circulation of glycation products along with the reduction of the activity of glyoxalase-I (GLO-I) contribute to diabetic nephropathy. Therefore, we studied the effect of 1,8 cineole (Cin) on the formation of diverse glycation products and the activity of GLO-I as well as renal histopathological alterations in the type-2 diabetic rat. Type 2 diabetes was induced in rats with a combination of streptozotocin and nicotinamide (55 + 200mg/kg). Two groups of rats, normal and diabetic, were treated intragastrically with Cin (200mg/kg) once daily for 2months. Fasting blood sugar, insulin resistance index, lipid profile, the activity of GLO-I, glycation products (Glycated albumin, Glycated LDL, Methylglyoxal, and advanced glycation end products), and oxidative stress (Advanced oxidation protein products, malondialdehyde, oxidized LDL, and reduced glutathione), inflammatory markers (Tumor necrosis factor-α and Transforming growth factor-1β), creatinine in the serum (Cre), and proteinuria (PU) in the urine of all rats was determined as well as renal histopathological alterations were investigated. Cin reduced biochemical (Cre and PU) and histopathological (glomerulosclerosis) indicators of renal dysfunction in the diabetic rat compared to untreated diabetic rats. Moreover, the treatment decreased different glycation, oxidative stress, and pro-inflammatory markers (p < 0.001).Further, Cin had an advantageous effect on glucose and lipid metabolism. Cin ameliorated diabetic nephropathy via reduction of TGF-1β following to decrease the formation of different glycation products, oxidative stress, and inflammatory process with the induction of the activity of glyoxalase-I in type 2 diabetic rats.

Methylglyoxal-glyoxalase system as a possible selection module for raising marker-safe plants in rice

Methylglyoxal (MG) is ubiquitously produced in all living organisms as a byproduct of glycolysis, higher levels of which are cytotoxic, leading to oxidative stress and apoptosis in the living systems. Though its generation is spontaneous but its detoxification involves glyoxalase pathway genes. Based on this understanding, the present study describes the possible role of MG as a novel non-antibiotic-based selection agent in rice. Further, by metabolizing MG, the glyoxalase pathway genes viz. glyoxalase I (GLYI) and glyoxalase II (GLYII), may serve as selection markers. Therefore, herein, transgenic rice harboring GLYI-GLYII genes (as selection markers) were developed and the effect of MG as a selection agent was assessed. The 3mM MG concentration was observed as optimum for the selection of transformed calli, allowing efficient callus induction and proliferation along with high regeneration frequency (55 ± 2%) of the transgenic calli. Since the transformed calli exhibited constitutively higher activity of GLYI and GLYII enzymes compared to the wild type calli, the rise in MG levels was restricted even upon exogenous addition of MG during the selection process, resulting in efficient selection of the transformed calli. Therefore, MG-based selection method is a useful and efficient system for selection of transformed plants without significantly compromising the transformation efficiency. Further, this MG-based selection system is bio-safe and can pave way towards better public acceptance of transgenic plants.

Glyoxalase I-4 functions downstream of NAC72 to modulate downy mildew resistance in grapevine.

Glyoxalase I (GLYI) is part of the glyoxalase system; its major function is the detoxification of α-ketoaldehydes, including the potent and cytotoxic methylglyoxal (MG). Methylglyoxal disrupts mitochondrial respiration and increases production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which also increase during pathogen infection of plant tissues; however, there have been few studies relating the glyoxalase system to the plant pathogen response. We used the promoter of VvGLYI-4 to screen the upstream transcription factors and report a NAC (NAM/ATAF/CUC) domain-containing transcription factor VvNAC72 in grapevine, which is localized to the nucleus. Our results show that VvNAC72 expression is induced by downy mildew, Plasmopara viticola, while the transcript level of VvGLYI-4 decreases. Further analysis revealed that VvNAC72 can bind directly to the promoter region of VvGLYI-4 via the CACGTG element, leading to inhibition of VvGLYI-4 transcription. Stable overexpression of VvNAC72 in grapevine and tobacco showed a decreased expression level of VvGLYI-4 and increased content of MG and ROS, as well as stronger resistance to pathogen stress. Taken together, these results demonstrate that grapevine VvNAC72 negatively modulates detoxification of MG through repression of VvGLYI-4, and finally enhances resistance to downy mildew, at least in part, via the modulation of MG-associated ROS homeostasis through a salicylic acid-mediated defense pathway.

Investigation of the Anti-Diabetic Effects of Imperialine on Beta-TC6 Pancreatic and C2C12 Skeletal Muscle Cell Lines; A In Vitro Study

Introduction: Imperialine (Imp) is a steroidal alkaloid present as the main active constituent of medicinal herb, Fritillaria imperialis with many biological and therapeutic effects. However, it has not been investigated in vitro for hypoglycemic effects. Herein, the effects of Imp on cell survival, carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzymes (alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase), glucose uptake ability, insulin secretion levels, advanced glycation end product (AGEs) include pentosidine, methylglyoxal, and 3-deoxyglucosone levels and the activity of glyoxalase I as the main factor for degradation of AGEs are examined. Materials and Methods: C2C12 skeletal muscle and beta-TC6 pancreatic cells incubated with Imp at concentrations of 0, 25, 50, 75, and 10 µg/ml, and the cells evaluated separately. The biological evaluations were based on ultraviolet-visible (UV/VIS) spectrophotometric and/or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods. Results: Imperialine had considerable and dose-dependent effects on glucose uptake and insulin secretion (p <0.05). The highest levels of glucose uptake were achieved at a concentration of 100 µg/ml of Imp. Increased glycation index, cytotoxicity, and decreased glyoxalase I activity appeared mostly at the concentrations of 75 microgram/ml and higher. The studied alkaloid demonstrated a remarkable hypoglycemic effect by inhibition of alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase. Conclusions: Consequently, the results of the present study revealed possible hypoglycemic effects of Imp and it could be suggested for future studies in the treatment of diabetes mellitus.

Reduction of oxidative stress and ornithine decarboxylase expression in a human prostate cancer cell line PC-3 by a combined treatment with α-tocopherol and naringenin.

Differentiation of a human aggressive PC-3 cancer cell line was obtained, in a previous investigation, by the synergic effect of α-tocopherol (α-TOC) and naringenin (NG). This combined treatment induced apoptosis and subsequent reduction of the PC-3 cell proliferation and invasion, by a pro-differentiating action. Since one of the peculiar characteristics of NG and α-TOC is their strong antioxidant activity, this study aimed to investigate their potential effect on the activity of the main enzymes involved in the antioxidant mechanism in prostate cancer cells. NG and α-TOC administered singularly or combined in the PC-3 cell line, affected the activity of several enzymes biomarkers of the cellular antioxidant activity, as well as the concentration of total glutathione (GSH + GSSG) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS). The combined treatment increased the TBARS levels and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, while decreased the glutathione S-transferase (GST), glutathione reductase (GR), and glyoxalase I (GI) activities. The results obtained indicate that a combined treatment with these natural compounds mitigated the oxidative stress in the human PC-3 cell line. In addition, a significant reduction of both ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) expression and intracellular levels of polyamines, both well-known positive regulators of cell proliferation, accompanied the reduction of oxidative stress observed in the combined α-TOC and NG treatment. Considering the established role of polyamines in cell differentiation, the synergism with NG makes α-TOC a potential drug for further study on the differentiation therapy in prostate cancer patients.

Ellagic acid: A potent glyoxalase-I inhibitor with a unique scaffold.

The glyoxalase system, particularly glyoxalase-I (GLO-I), has been approved as a potential target for cancer treatment. In this study, a set of structurally diverse polyphenolic natural compounds were investigated as potential GLO-I inhibitors. Ellagic acid was found, computationally and experimentally, to be the most potent GLO-I inhibitor among the tested compounds which showed an IC50 of 0.71 mmol L-1. Its binding to the GLO-I active site seemed to be mainly driven by ionic interaction via its ionized hydroxyl groups with the central Zn ion and Lys156, along with other numerous hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions. Due to its unique and rigid skeleton, it can be utilized to search for other novel and potent GLO-I inhibitors via computational approaches such as pharmacophore modeling and similarity search methods. Moreover, an inspection of the docked poses of the tested compounds showed that chlorogenic acid and dihydrocaffeic acid could be considered as lead compounds worthy of further optimization.

RES transformation for biosynthesis and detoxification.

The reactive electrophilic species (RES), typically the molecules bearing α,β-unsaturated carbonyl group, are widespread in living organisms and notoriously known for their damaging effects. Many of the mycotoxins released from phytopathogenic fungi are RES and their contamination to cereals threatens food safety worldwide. However, due to their high reactivity, RES are also used by host organisms to synthesize specific metabolites. The evolutionary conserved glyoxalase (GLX) system scavenges the cytotoxic α-oxoaldehydes that bear RES groups, which cause host disorders and diseases. In cotton, a specialized enzyme derived from glyoxalase I (GLXI) through gene duplications and named as specialized GLXI (SPG), acts as a distinct type of aromatase in the gossypol pathway to transform the RES intermediates into the phenolic products. In this review, we briefly introduce the research progress in understanding the RES, especially the RES-type mycotoxins, the GLX system and SPG, and discuss their application potential in detoxification and synthetic biology.