Glycidyl Esters Research Articles

Development of Technologies for Processing Polypropylene Foil Waste and Their Use in the Production of Finished Products

This work aims to assess the possibility of using packaging industry waste to modify polypropylene products (PPs). The products were made in the form of extruded foil and injected samples. The products were produced using regranulate made of polypropylene cast foil. Maleic anhydride-modified polypropylene (MAPP) and polyolefin elastomer (POE) with a glycidyl ester functional group were used to modify the polypropylene. The samples were produced based on 50% foil waste reground and 50% pure PP. The rheological properties of the blends were assessed using the melt mass flow rate (MFR) technique; thermal properties using the differential scanning calorimetry method (DSC). The products manufactured using the injection molding method were subjected to an analysis of mechanical properties, such as tensile strength and impact strength. Also, in the case of film samples, tensile strength was assessed. Color-change assessments with CIE L*a*b* were carried out for all materials. Injection-molded products based on recycled metallized cast foil showed favorable mechanical properties such as tensile strength (1 MAPP = 26.7 MPa; 2 MAPP = 27.1 MPa), which was higher than the original material (cPP = 20.7 MPa). Also, for the films produced from regrind, the tensile strength was at a level similar (1 MAPP = 24.6 MPa; 2 MAPP/POE = 25.1 MPa) to the films extruded from virgin materials (cPP = 24.9 MPa). The introduction of a POE additive to the blends resulted in increased impact strength (1 MAPP/POE = 31 kJ/mol; 2MAPP/POE = 18 kJ/mol; 3 MAPP/POE = 11 kJ/mol) in relation to unmodified samples (cPP = 7 kJ/mol). The introduction of a POE additive to the tested mixtures improved the impact strength of the injected products by almost 4 times for sample 1 MAPP/POE and 2.5 times for sample 2 MAPP/POE in comparison to virgin cPP. These studies confirmed that foil waste can be successfully used to modify polypropylene products shaped both in the injection and extrusion processes.

Fats and oils contaminants: an analysis of EU RASFF notifications from 1999 to 2023

Between 1999 and 2023, an extensive analysis of 713 notifications from the EU Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) related to fats and oils was conducted. The analysis covered the most frequently reported products, associated hazards, countries of origin, notification classifications, risk decisions, and actions taken in response. The data demonstrate considerable variability in RASFF notifications throughout the studied period, with significant spikes and a recent upward trend. Of all notifications, 44.32 % were categorized as alerts, and 23.42 % as border rejections. In terms of risk decisions, 34.08 % were deemed serious and 60.59 % remained undecided. Palm oil emerged as the most frequently notified product, representing 37.87 % of all notifications, followed by olive oil at 15.71 % and sunflower oil at 11.36 %. The Sudan 4 dye was identified as the most common hazard, constituting 30.01 % of all fats and oils notifications. Other notable hazards included benzo(a)pyrene (26.65 %), glycidyl esters (6.03 %), and chlorpyrifos (3.37 %). The top three countries of origin for RASFF notifications on fats and oils were Ghana (22.30 %), Ukraine (13.18 %), and Italy (9.96 %). These findings could benefit further research and influence decision-making, thereby enhancing food safety protocols in the global production, processing, and distribution of fats and oils.

Preliminary risk assessment of exposure to 3-monochloropropanediol and glycidyl fatty acid esters from infant formula and baby food products on the Saudi market

3-Monochloropropanediol fatty acid esters (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) are well-identified processing-induced chemical toxicants detected in infant formula and baby foods worldwide. We analysed the levels of 3-MCPDE and GE in infant formula and baby food products available in Saudi Arabia, followed by a dietary risk assessment for exposure to these contaminants in infants and young children from birth to 3 years. Eighty-five commercial infant formulas (n = 35) and baby foods (n = 50) available for consumption by infants and babies purchased from the Saudi market during 2022 were analysed for these contaminants using gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. 3-MCPDE and GE were detected in 100 and 80% of the samples, with a mean concentration of 57 µg/kg (range: 2–285 µg/kg) and 30 µg/kg (range: not detected–217 µg/kg), respectively. The highest concentration was found in milk-based formula for infants 0–6 months (285 µg/kg) and the lowest was found in fruit purees (2 µg/kg). Preliminary exposure and risk assessment showed increased exposure to 3-MCPDE for infants exclusively fed infant formula with exposure declining with age due to the introduction of solid foods. GE exposure levels reached 0.8 µg/kg body weight per day, which declined over time with margin of exposure values below 25,000. These results indicate that the levels of 3-MCPDE and GE in infant formula may pose potential risks to infants exclusively fed formula; therefore, adopting EU regulations should reduce the presence of these processing contaminants in essential infant foods.

Effects of pre‐deacidification on 3‐MCPDE and GE contents of high‐acid oils during refining

SummaryCrude fats and oils may have high free fatty acid (FFA) content depending on raw material quality and processing conditions. Their refining is always a challenge due to refining loss and the formation of some process contaminants such as 3‐monochloropropane‐1,2‐diol esters (3‐MCPDE), and glycidyl esters (GE). In this study, crude hazelnut oil having 12.10% FFA was degummed, bleached, and pre‐deacidified by a molecular distillation (MD) unit before neutralisation and deodorisation. Changes in FFA, diglyceride(DG), 3‐MCPDE, GE, and tocopherol contents were monitored. Almost no changes were detected in FFA and DG contents during degumming and bleaching while the latter resulted in the 3‐MCPDE formation and GE reduction. Some tocopherol losses were also observed after these steps. On the other hand, a huge amount of FFA was distilled (from 12.10% to 1.71%) by the MD process performed at 200 °C, 0.25 mbar, as well as with a 53.6% loss of tocopherol. The samples were then subjected to deodorisation before (MD‐PHY) and after neutralisation (MD‐CHE) at 230 °C under 2 mbar absolute pressure for 2, 4, and 8 h. While some 3‐MCPDE and GE formations were detected during MD‐CHE, there were almost no formations in these contaminants after MD‐PHY. When the bleached oil having 12.10% FFA was also directly deodorised at given conditions, no formations but some reductions in 3‐MCPDE and GE contents of the oils were determined, possibly because of esterification of FFA with DGs that are an important precursor of these contaminants.

Glycidol-induced hepatocyte apoptosis via endoplasmic reticulum stress: The underlying role of the gut-liver axis

Glycidol (CAS: 556-52-5), a known carcinogen and genotoxicant, is often found in refined vegetable oils. Human exposure predominantly occurs through consumption of these oils and their byproducts, which contain glycidyl esters (GEs). Upon ingestion, GEs are metabolized to release glycidol, posing substantial health hazards. Historical studies have reported the tumorigenic properties of glycidol across various organs in mice models, encompassing the stomach, liver, lungs, brain, mammary gland, and skin. In this study, we employed a Balb/c mice model to investigate the hepatotoxic effects of glycidol following exposure to escalating doses (0, 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg bw/day). The hepatotoxicity was evidenced by a significant elevation in liver enzymes (ALT, AST), indicative of liver cell damage. Furthermore, biochemical analysis revealed heightened levels of oxidative stress indicators (SOD, MDA, GSH) and the upregulation of endoplasmic reticulum stress proteins, underscoring the cellular stress response. The induction of hepatocyte apoptosis served as a direct marker of liver damage caused by glycidol exposure. Additionally, glycidol altered the composition of intestinal microbiota and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which unbalanced homeostasis. Gut barrier integrity markers (ZO-1, Claudin-1, Occludin, TLR4, LPS) indicated increased permeability of harmful substances to the liver via the gut-liver axis, which exacerbated hepatic injury. These findings highlight glycidol's disruption of gut homeostasis and its hepatotoxic potential.

The Trend in Mitigation Strategies of 3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol and Glycidyl Esters in Edible Vegetable Oils: Today and Tomorrow

3-Monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and its esters, which have carcinogenic and genotoxic effects, are contaminants induced by high-temperature that have been detected in refined oils and fatty foods. 3-MCPD esters, chlorinated propanols, were first identified in 1978 in acid-hydrolysed vegetable proteins used as flavour enhancers in many foods. Glycidyl esters (GE) are contaminants that can occur in edible oils during heat treatment and are formed mainly during the deodorisation phase of refining. The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified 3-MCPD as a ’potential carcinogen for humans’ in group 2B. Glycidol has also been classified as group 2A with mutagenic and carcinogenic properties, i.e. ’probably carcinogenic to humans’. In addition, glycidol has been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a ’possible human carcinogen’ (group 2A). Toxicological studies have shown that these genotoxic and carcinogenic contaminants induced by heat treatment are released in the gastrointestinal tract and cause the formation of tumours. In this review the mechanisms of formation, toxicological effects of 3-MCPD and GE on human health, and methods of their detection are shown. The latest strategies to mitigate and prevent 3-MCPD and GE formation during crude oil production, refining and beyond are also discussed.

Multiple Mechanisms of Haematococcus pluvialis-Derived Carotenoids to Inhibit Glycidyl Ester Formation in Rice Oil and a Chemical Model at High Temperatures.

The common presence of glycidyl esters (GEs) in refined vegetable oils has been a concern for food safety. The present study aimed to investigate the inhibitory effects of three carotenoids derived from Haematococcus pluvialis microalga on GE formation in both rice oil and a chemical model during heating. The addition of astaxanthin (AS), lutein (LU), and β-carotene (CA) at 0.6 mg/g in rice oil can reduce GE formation by 65.0%, 57.1%, and 57.5%, respectively, which are significantly higher than those achieved by common antioxidants such as l-ascorbyl palmitate (39.0%), α-tocopherol (18.5%), tert-butyl hydroquinone (42.7%), and quercetin (26.2%). UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS analysis showed that two new compounds, that is, propylene glycol monoester and diester of palmitic acid, were formed in the CA-added chemical model, which provided direct experimental evidence for the inhibition of antioxidants including AS, LU, and CA against GE formation not only by indirect antioxidative action but also by direct radical reactions to competitively prevent the formation of cyclic acyloxonium intermediates. Furthermore, it was interestingly found that only AS could react with the GEs. The adduct of AS with GEs, astaxanthin-3-O-propanetriol esters, was preliminarily identified using Q-TOF-MS/MS in the heated AS-GE model, suggesting that reacting with GEs might represent another distinct mechanism of AS to eliminate GEs.

Changes in stability, phytonutrients, 3-chloropropanol esters and glycidyl esters of peanut oil-based diacylglycerols during heat treatment

Diacylglycerol (DAG) is generally considered one of the precursors of 3-chloropropanol esters (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GEs). This study aimed to evaluate static heating and stir-frying properties of peanut oil (PO) and PO based 58% and 82% DAG oils (PDAG-58 and PDAG-82). Observations revealed that, phytonutrient levels notably diminished during static heating, with PDAG exhibiting reduced oxidative stability, but maintaining a stability profile similar to PO over a short period. During stir-frying, 3-MCPDE content initially increased and then decreased whereas the opposite was observed for GEs. Furthermore, as temperature, and NaCl concentration increased, there was a corresponding increase in the levels of 3-MCPDE and GEs, although remained within safe limits. When used in suitable concentrations, these findings underscore the potential of DAG, as a nutritionally rich and oxidatively stable alternative to conventional cooking oils, promoting the use of DAG edible oil in heat-cooked food systems.

Diacylglycerides as nutrition components or precursors of carcinogens: a critical view on an ambular question

Obesity is considered as a noninfectious epidemic worldwide. Metabolic disorders associated with the accumulation of adipose tissue lead to obesity-associated diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases. Diet is a component of treatment of diseases associated with obesity. The most commonly used diets are caloric restriction by reducing fat in the diet. Over the years, there have been several attempts to use diacylglycerol (DAG) as components of dietary oils owing to its ability to suppress the accumulation of visceral fat and reduce postprandial levels of triacylglycerol and cholesterol and glucose in the blood serum. However, in 2009, it was found that when oil was processed at high temperatures during physical refining, DAG-enriched oil had the highest levels of potentially harmful glycidyl esters compared to conventional refined fats and oils. The study of the negative effects of glycidyl esters has prompted the food industry, which has traditionally used oil, to focus on strategies in preventing or mitigating these effects by changing the refining process or modifying deodorization equipment to reduce or eliminate process contaminants.

Pencucian Crude Palm Oil (CPO) untuk Mitigasi Penurunan 3-MCPDE dan GE pada Pemurnian Minyak Sawit

Crude palm oil (CPO) purification aims to remove or degrade unwanted components such as free fatty acids (FFA), phospholipids, impurities, color pigments, metals, and odors. The CPO purification generally consists of degumming, bleaching, and deodorization process. During the stages, some undesirable compounds are formed, including 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol ester (3-MCPDE) and glycidyl ester (GE). The main precursors responsible for formation of the two compounds are chlorides and acyl glycerol fractions, especially diacylglycerol (DAG) and this occurs high temperatures in the deodorization process. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce their precursors in order to supress the contaminants. To cope with the problem, a washing process of CPO was proposed as an extra process before a purification stage. The washing process was carried out in two ways, namely wet washing by using water, and dry washing by using bleaching earth (BE) by 2 types of commercial BE (natural and acid activated). Washing processes using wet and dry washing (natural and activated BE) showed comparable effectiveness in reducing 3-MCPDE and GE levels in refined palm oil. As a result, the process successfully reduced 3-MCPDE content to comply with a standard Commission Regulation (EU) 2020/1332, but GE content did not conform to standard.

Using 3‐monochloropropanediol esters and glycidyl esters to discriminate adulteration of cold‐pressed avocado oils and their refined variants

Using 3‐monochloropropanediol esters and glycidyl esters to discriminate adulteration of cold‐pressed avocado oils and their refined variants

Characterization of dental light-curing resin composites incorporating multiple modified low-shrink monomers

ObjectivePolymerization shrinkage poses a significant challenge in dental resin composites. The objective of this study is to introduce spiroorthocarbonate monomer 3,9-dimethylene-1,3,5,7-tetraoxa-spiro[5,5]undecane (BMSOC) and epoxy resin monomer 3,4-epoxycyclohexylmethyl-3,4-epoxycyclohexane carboxylate (ECHM-ECHC) into bisphenol-S-bis(3-methacrylato-2-hydroxy propyl)ether (BisS-GMA) based resin composites to develop composites with reduced shrinkage properties. MethodsBMSOC and BisS-GMA were synthesized and thoroughly mixed with ECHM-ECHC, followed by inorganic fillers and photoinitiators. Based on the composition of the resin matrix, five groups of experimental composites were prepared, with traditional bisphenol A-dimethacrylate glycidyl ester (Bis-GMA)/triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA) based composite serving as the control. The polymerization properties, including degree of conversion (DC) and polymerization shrinkage (PS), as well as marginal microleakage, wettability, flexural strength (FS), flexural modulus (FM), and biocompatibility were evaluated. ResultsThe results demonstrated that compared with the control group, the PS of BisS-GMA based composites containing BMSOC and ECHM-ECHC were significantly reduced (P < 0.05), and the lowest PS (0.96 ± 0.08 %) was observed when the ratio of BisS-GMA: (Epoxy + BMSOC) was 4:6. Additionally, the experimental composites also exhibited improved DC, minimal microleakage, low hydrophilicity, enhanced mechanical properties, qualified in vivo biocompatibility, and slight/moderate in vitro biocompatibility. SignificanceThe resin composites incorporating multiple modified low-shrink monomers are promising for dental applications to prevent various clinical problems caused by PS and extend restoration longevity.

Determination of chloropropanol esters and glycidyl esters in nutritional foods by gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry based on acid hydrolysis and solid-phase extraction

This study presents a method based on acid transesterification and the purification by solid-phase extraction (SPE) coupled with gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry for quantifying 3- and 2-monochloropropanediol esters (3-MCPDE, 2-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) in nutritional foods. The fat was extracted by liquid–liquid extraction with petroleum ether and diethyl ether after the sample was hydrolysed with ammonia. Then the extract was purified by a SPE cartridge filled with the aminopropyl sorbents. It was demonstrated that the optimal elution volume for 3-MCPDE, 2-MCPDE and GE greatly depended on the sample matrix and varied from 6 to 12 mL for four different kinds of food matrices. All three analytes in the sample solution could be fully collected in the first 10–12 mL of eluate. By this way, monoacylglycerols commonly present in the samples were fully removed. Therefore, the overestimation of GE quantification was effectively eliminated. The modified analytical procedure was fully validated in a single laboratory and has been recommended as a Chinese Food Safety National Standard. In addition, two derivatisation agents, heptafluorobutyrylimidazole and phenylboronic acid, were proved to be equivalent in method accuracy and precision for the quantification of three analytes.

Adsorption of 3‐monochloropropane‐1,2‐diol ester and glycidyl ester from refined bleached deodorized palm oil using zeolite‐based adsorbents

AbstractPalm oil processing can result in different food products like cooking oil and margarine. Nevertheless, these food products might contain harmful contaminants, namely 3‐monochloropropane‐1,2‐diol ester (3‐MCPDE) and glycidyl ester (GE), which can negatively affect animal organs and potentially cause human cancer. Therefore, the objective of this study was to lower the concentration of 3‐MCPDE and GE in refined, bleached, and deodorized palm oil (RBDPO) using zeolite as an adsorbent. Adsorption experiments were conducted in a batch reactor, varying the percentage of adsorbents, temperature, type of zeolite, and the use of a mixture of zeolite and activated carbon (AC). The sample was analyzed before and after adsorption using gas chromatography–mass spectroscopy (GC–MS) to confirm the concentration alteration of 3‐MCPDE and GE. The study showed that the most effective temperature for adsorption was 35°C and used a zeolite percentage of 2%. Beta zeolites resulted in the highest removal of 3‐MCPDE (86%) among the evaluated zeolites attributed to their elevated pore volume, Si/Al ratio, and overall acidity strength. Through a synergistic combination of beta zeolite and AC, the removal percentage of 3‐MCPDE was enhanced to 94%, with a corresponding 75% reduction in GE. This study paves the way for addressing 3‐MCPDE and GE concerns in RBDPO by combining zeolite and AC.

Mitigation methods during physical refining for the reduction of 2- and 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters in (organic) high oleic sunflower and rapeseed oils

2-monochloropropane-1,3-diol esters (2-MCPDE), 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDE), and glycidyl fatty acid esters (GE) are process contaminants formed during the production of refined edible oils and fats. The aim of this research was to develop mitigation strategies for the formation of these contaminants in organic oils, mainly high oleic (HO) sunflower and rapeseed oil, during physical refining. Different strategies such as a double refining with a high-low deodorization temperature, water washing and increasing amounts of bleaching earth were compared with a single physical refining (control treatment). Experiments were conducted in a pilot-plant refinery. Compared with the control treatment, double refining successfully reduced the concentration of formed of GE in HO sunflower and rapeseed oil, respectively by, 70% and 94%. In particular, the second degumming and bleaching were crucial for eliminating GE concentrations. Both 2- and 3-MCPDE were formed during temperature ramping, prior to the deodorization process and the concentrations of these contaminants remained stable throughout the refining process. Doubling the amount of bleaching earth led to an approximately 48% decrease of 2- and 3-MCPDE levels in final HO sunflower oil. No decrease was observed in rapeseed oil. The results of our studies provide useful insights which can directly be implemented by the (organic) vegetable oil industry.

Nutritional, Utility, and Sensory Quality and Safety of Sunflower Oil on the Central European Market

In the quality monitoring of 18 sunflower oil samples from the EU market, 14 were refined and 4 were cold-pressed. They demonstrated high quality of technological processing with low values of trans-unsaturated fatty acids, acid value, and peroxide value and also met the limits set by legislation in the content of process contaminants 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters and glycidyl esters. Measurements of oxidative stability showed a difference in utility value. The average induction period of the oils from the traditional varieties was 2.6 h, predisposing them to cold cooking or short-term frying, while the 11.8 h of the four high oleic sunflower oils (HOSO) indicates the possibility of long-term heat stress. The nutritional benefit is the average vitamin E content of 663 mg/kg oil. The overall sensory quality of the samples was evaluated by a 12-member panel of trained assessors. On the seven-point category scale, the oils were of good to exceptional quality. The cold-pressed oils (CPOs) differed in having, on average, lower trans-unsaturated fatty acid content, process contaminants at unmeasurable levels, and, on average, higher vitamin E concentrations. The specific organoleptic properties of the CPOs were characterized by a pleasant nutty and sunflower seed flavor.

Effect of chain extension on processability and mechanical properties of poly(3‐hydroxybutyrate‐co‐4‐hydroxybutyrate)

AbstractPoly(3‐hydroxybutyrate‐4‐hydroxybutyrate) (P34HB) copolyester is a new type of biodegradable polymer material, but it cannot meet the market requirements because of its poor thermal stability. In this work, P34HB with a low degree of cross‐linking was successfully prepared by incorporating a small amount of a multiple epoxy chain extender, known as Joncryl ADR‐4380 (styrene‐methacrylic acid glycidyl ester copolymer), through reactive extrusion. The rheological properties, thermal stability, thermal behavior, and mechanical properties of the materials were investigated. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and gel content test showed that there was a significant chemical interaction between P34HB and ADR4380, and a cross‐linked structure was produced. Compared with pure P34HB, the samples after chain extension showed improved rheological properties, with increased viscosity and melt elasticity due to the formation of a gel network. Thermogravimetric analysis, dynamic time scanning experiment, and melt flow index (MFI) provided strong evidence for the enhanced of thermal stability of P34HB. The onset decomposition temperature of P34HB increased by 13.5°C, and its MFI decreased from 23.30 to around 5 at 170°C, and the complex viscosity remained relatively stable with time after modification. In terms of mechanical properties, the maximum elongation at break increased by 88.08% due to the improvement of toughness.

Occurrence and exposure evaluation of 2- and 3-monochloropropanediol (MCPD) esters and glycidyl esters in refined vegetable oils marketed in Tianjin of China

2-and 3-monochloropropanediol esters (2-/3-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) with high toxicity have drawn global concerns due to their widespread occurrence in refined vegetable oils and oil-based foods. In this study, we investigated the contamination level and human health risks of 2-MCPDE, 3-MCPDE and GE in refined vegetable oils marketed in Tianjin of China. Results showed that the concentrations of 2-MCPDE, 3-MCPDE and GE in the 137 vegetable oil samples were in the range of not detected (ND) −6.95 mg/kg, ND-8.39 mg/kg and ND-5.46 mg/kg, respectively. The mean, 50th percentile and 95th percentile concentrations of 3-MCPDE were higher than the corresponding concentration of 2-MCPDE and GE in different types of oils samples. Among the samples analyzed, 29 samples (21.2%) exceeded the maximum levels (2.5 mg/kg) for 3-MCPDE, while 25 samples (18.2%) exceeded the maximum levels (1.0 mg/kg) for GE. The estimated intakes of 3-MCPDE of high consumers of children (7–10 years), adolescents (11–13 years) exceeded the tolerated daily intake (TDI) value of 2 µg/kg bw per day established by EFSA, suggesting a potential concern. The Margin of Exposure (MoE) values for glycidol exposure via vegetable oils consumption in all age groups indicated there is a human health concern.

Effects of reactive diluent on processing, structure, and properties of epoxy foams and their sandwich composites

AbstractFoam sandwich composite (FSC) has recently been widely used in transportation, aerospace, shipping, and construction because of its lightweight, high specific strength, stiffness, and fatigue resistance characteristics. This study aimed to prepare, characterize, and test FSC with different diluent addition amounts. Benzyl glycidyl ester was added to the epoxy foam (EF) as a reactive diluent. Then, the EF was introduced into the three‐dimensional hollow composite (3DHC) by vacuum introduction process to prepare the FSC. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis demonstrated that increased diluent content enhanced SiN bond formation, augmenting thermal stability in resin molecules. The effects of different diluents on the mechanical properties of FSC showed that the mechanical properties of FSC were the best when the diluent content was 5 wt%. Compared with 3DHC, the flat compressive strength, flat tensile strength, and shear strength were increased by 7.2, 6.4, and 2.9 times, respectively.Highlights Diluent improves foaming agent dispersion by lowering resin viscosity. Diluent makes the EP easier to be introduced into 3DHC. FSC demonstrates a 723% increase in flat compression strength.

Occurrence and risk assessment of glycidyl and 3-monochloropropanediol esters in infant formulas marketed in Taiwan

Glycidyl esters (GEs) and 3-monochloropropanediol esters (3-MCPDEs) are process contaminants commonly found in refined edible oils which are often added to infant formulas. The Taiwan Food and Drug Administration (TFDA) launched regulations for GEs in infant formulas that went into effect on 1 July 2021. To investigate levels of GEs and 3-MCPDEs in infant formula powder, 45 products were sampled and analysed during 2020–2021. The contents of GEs and 3-MCPDEs in formulas of different brands significantly varied, but their concentrations in all of the formulas complied with European Union (EU) regulations. Infant formulas containing palm oil had significantly higher 3-MCPDE levels in both extracted oils and milk powder than those without palm oil. Concentrations of GEs and 3-MCPDEs in infant formula powder and extracted oils were significantly lower in products from Europe than those from Australia and New Zealand. Infants aged 0–1 years in Taiwan who consumed only infant formula showed a margin of exposure (MoE) exceeding 25,000. Mean consumer exposures to 3-MCPDEs stayed below the tolerable daily intake (TDI), while high exposures at the 95th percentile (P95) exceeded the TDI by 1.7-fold. Herein, we present the changing trends in the risk assessment results of infant formula across various countries in the decade. Implementation of regulations and mitigation strategy effectively reduced the risk of infants being exposed to GEs and 3-MCPDEs through infant formula.