Global Outbreak Research Articles

Potential usage of boron modified carbon nanodots as a marker candidate for coronavirus disease (COVID-19) antibody detection

The global outbreak of COVID-19 in December 2019 has highlighted rapid and accurate diagnostic tools for effective intervention. While the RT-PCR test offers 86 % sensitivity, uncertainties often require supplementary screening. This research investigates how carbon dots (CDs) can be utilized as markers for COVID-19 antibodies, taking advantage of their biocompatibility and low toxicity. CDs were synthesized using citric acid (CA) and APBA with boronic acid, enabling the detection of COVID-19 IgG antibodies with increased absorbance and fluorescence. Comprehensive analyses confirmed the successful synthesis of APBA-CDs, prompting further exploration of their impact on SARS-CoV-2 RNA. Increased absorbance levels were observed in categories K1, K2, and K3, attributed to the introduction of CDs into plasma, indicating effective binding of APBA-CDs to COVID-19 antibodies. In addition, the fluorescence tests consistently showed heightened levels across all categories, emphasizing the effective binding of APBA-CDs with COVID-19 antibodies, particularly in positive plasma samples. As a part of our analysis, we conducted a PCA test to validate the data, which revealed that APBA-CDs are specific to IgG+ antibodies. The results showed a sensitivity rate of 74 % and a specificity rate of 53 %, while, when tested for IgM antibodies, the sensitivity and specificity rates were 63 % and 27 %, respectively. These findings highlight the potential of APBA-CDs as a sensitive and specific marker for COVID-19 antibody detection, offering potential for diagnostic tool development.

Evaluation of Mpox Exposures and Outcomes in Workplaces, 6 Jurisdictions, June 1-August 31, 2022.

The risk for mpox virus (MPXV) transmission in most workplaces has not been thoroughly assessed in the context of the 2022 global mpox outbreak. Our objectives were to describe mpox case patients who worked while infectious and the subsequent workplace contact tracing efforts, risk assessments, and outcomes. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention requested information from health departments in the United States in September 2022 to identify people with confirmed or probable mpox who worked outside the home while infectious, either before or after diagnosis, from June 1 through August 31, 2022. We collected and summarized data on demographic, clinical, and workplace characteristics of case patients and workplace contact investigations. We stratified data by industry and occupation categories. In total, 102 case patients were reported by 6 jurisdictions. The most common industries were accommodation and food services (19.8%) and professional business, management, and technical services (17.0%). Contact investigations identified 178 total contacts; 54 cases (52.9%) had no contacts identified. Of 178 contacts, 54 (30.3%) were recommended to receive postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) and 18 (10.1%) received PEP. None of the contacts developed a rash or were tested for orthopox or mpox, and none were reported to have confirmed or probable mpox. Data from 6 jurisdictions suggest that the risk of MPXV transmission from workers to others in workplace settings in many industries is low. These findings might support future updates to exposure risk classifications and work activity recommendations for patients. These findings also demonstrate the importance of collecting and analyzing occupation and industry data in case reports to better understand risks in workplaces.

Performance evaluation of a SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A/B combo rapid antigen test

Introduction: The global COVID-19 pandemic and seasonal influenza outbreaks have drawn attention to the critical need for accurate and efficient diagnostic tools.Methods: The performance of the InstaView COVID-19/Flu Ag Combo Test, which was designed to simultaneously detect the SARS-CoV-2, influenza A, and influenza B viruses, was analytically and clinically evaluated.Results: The InstaView COVID-19/Flu Ag Combo Test exhibited robust detection capabilities, accurately identifying SARS-CoV-2, influenza A, and influenza B viruses over a wide concentration range (1.41 × 103 to 7.05 × 104 TCID50/mL). Extensive testing against potential cross-reactants and interferences yielded no false-positive results, indicating the high specificity of the test. Clinical evaluation further confirmed the kit’s reliability, with sensitivity ranging from 95.1% to 98.2% for SARS-CoV-2, 88.9%–95.2% for influenza A, and 91.7%–100% for influenza B depending on the sample type. The specificity was consistently 100% for all of the targeted viruses.Discussion: The InstaView COVID-19/Flu Ag Combo Test thus demonstrated high performance, ease of use, rapid results, and the ability to precisely detect SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A/B infections, making it an effective tool in streamlining diagnostic workflows, optimizing resource allocation, and improving patient outcomes.

Factors potentially contributing to the decline of the mpox outbreak in the Netherlands, 2022 and 2023.

BackgroundIn 2022 and 2023, a global outbreak of mpox affected mostly gay, bisexual and other men having sex with men (GBMSM). Outbreak control in the Netherlands included isolation, quarantine, post-exposure prophylaxis vaccination and primary preventive vaccination (PPV).AimWe describe the course of the outbreak, the vaccination programme, vaccine effectiveness (VE) of full vaccination against symptomatic disease, and trends in behaviour to generate hypotheses about factors that influenced the outbreak's decline.MethodsIn this observational study, we collected data from public health services on notified cases, number of PPV invitations and PPV doses administered. We calculated PPV uptake and coverage. Trends in behavioural data of GBMSM visiting sexual health centres were analysed for all consultations in 2022. We estimated VE using the screening method.ResultsUntil 31 December 2023, 1,294 mpox cases were reported. The outbreak peaked in early July 2022 and then declined sharply. PPV started on 25 July 2022; in total 29,851 doses were administered, 45.8% received at least one dose, 35.4% were fully vaccinated. The estimated VE was 68.2% (95% CI 4.3-89.5%). We did not observe an evident decrease in high-risk behaviour.DiscussionIt is unlikely that PPV was a driver of the outbreak's decline, as incidence started to decline well before the start of the PPV programme. The possible impact of behavioural change could not be demonstrated with the available indicators, however, the data had limitations, hampering interpretation. We hypothesise that infection-induced immunity in high-risk groups was an important factor explaining the decline.

Survey of pain and stigma experiences in people diagnosed with mpox in Baltimore, Maryland during 2022 global outbreak.

A high prevalence of mpox in men who have sex with men and in people with HIV, plus visually striking and contagious lesions, have raised concerns for mpox stigma. 24 PCR-confirmed mpox patients were surveyed over the course of three months, utilizing an mpox stigma scale adapted from the HIV Stigma Scale plus assessment of pain, analgesic efficacy, and healthcare experiences. Participants were cis-male (100%), with male sexual partners (96%), mostly African-American (88%), and living with HIV (79%). Patients answered 4-16 of 24 (mean 10) stigma questions affirmatively, particularly related to negative effects of mpox on the LGBTQ community. 79% reported pain, most commonly of limbs and perianal area, with perianal pain being rated most severe. The most effective pain relief occurred with opioids (100% major relief, n = 2) and tecovirimat (63% major relief, 25% moderate, n = 16). Patients were satisfied with care provided at the studied clinics, but had negative experiences at all other mentioned sites.

U.S. Preparedness and Response to Increasing Clade I Mpox Cases in the Democratic Republic of the Congo - United States, 2024.

Clade I monkeypox virus (MPXV), which can cause severe illness in more people than clade II MPXVs, is endemic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), but the country has experienced an increase in suspected cases during 2023-2024. In light of the 2022 global outbreak of clade II mpox, the increase in suspected clade I cases in DRC raises concerns that the virus could spread to other countries and underscores the importance of coordinated, urgent global action to support DRC's efforts to contain the virus. To date, no cases of clade I mpox have been detected outside of countries in Central Africa where the virus is endemic. CDC and other partners are working to support DRC's response. In addition, CDC is enhancing U.S. preparedness by raising awareness, strengthening surveillance, expanding diagnostic testing capacity for clade I MPXV, ensuring appropriate specimen handling and waste management, emphasizing the importance of appropriate medical treatment, and communicating guidance on the recommended contact tracing, containment, behavior modification, and vaccination strategies.

Mpox in people with HIV: A narrative review.

The 2022 global mpox outbreak disproportionately impacted people living with HIV. This review explores recent evidence on mpox in this group, focusing on clinical presentation, complications, treatment modalities and vaccine strategies. Recent studies have suggested that people with HIV diagnosed with mpox have a greater risk of proctitis and hospitalization compared with people without HIV. In addition, those with advanced immunosuppression face an elevated risk of severe mpox infection, which can lead to mortality. Comprehensive and prompt supportive care using antiretrovirals and mpox antivirals is crucial in this group. Although results from randomized clinical trials are still forthcoming, recent studies suggest that early initiation of tecovirimat can prevent disease progression in people with HIV. The non-replicative attenuated smallpox vaccine is well tolerated and effective in preventing monkeypox virus infections in people with HIV. Further studies are needed regarding long-term vaccine effectiveness for this population. Evaluating the risk of severe mpox in people living with HIV requires assessing the level of immune suppression and viral control. Universal access to vaccination is imperative to prevent the resurgence of future outbreaks.

Genetic and virulence characteristics of hybrid Shiga toxin-producing and atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli strains isolated in South Korea.

The predominant hybrid pathogenic E. coli, enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), combines characteristics of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) and enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), contributing to global outbreaks with severe symptoms including fatal consequences. Since EHEC infection was designated as a notifiable disease in 2000 in South Korea, around 2000 cases have been reported, averaging approximately 90 cases annually. In this work, genome-based characteristic analysis and cell-based assay of hybrid STEC/aEPEC strains isolated from livestock feces, animal source foods, and water in South Korea was performed. To identify the virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes, determining the phylogenetic position of hybrid STEC/aEPEC strains isolated in South Korea, a combination of real-time PCR and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) was used. Additionally, to assess the virulence of the hybrid strains and compare them with genomic characterization, we performed a cell cytotoxicity and invasion assays. The hybrid STEC/aEPEC strains harbored stx and eae genes, encoding Shiga toxins and E. coli attachment/effacement related protein of STEC and EPEC, respectively. Furthermore, all hybrid strains harbored plasmid-carried enterohemolysin(ehxCABD), a key virulence factor in prevalent pathogenic E. coli infections, such as diarrheal disease and hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS). Genome-wide phylogenetic analysis revealed a close association between all hybrid strains and specific EPEC strains, suggesting the potential acquisition of Stx phages during STEC/aEPEC hybrid formation. Some hybrid strains showed cytotoxic activity against HeLa cells and invasive properties against epithelial cells. Notably, all STEC/aEPEC hybrids with sequence type (ST) 1,034 (n = 11) exhibited higher invasiveness than those with E2348/69. This highlights the importance of investigating potential correlations between STs and virulence characteristics of E. coli hybrid strains. Through genome-based characterization, we confirmed that the hybrid STEC/aEPEC strains are likely EPEC strains that have acquired STEC virulence genes via phage. Furthermore, our results emphasize the potential increased danger to humans posed by hybrid STEC/aEPEC strains isolated in South Korea, containing both stx and eaeA, compared to STEC or EPEC alone.

Clinical presentation, viral shedding, and neutralizing antibody responses of mpox cases in South Korea: Single center experience

BackgroundA global mpox outbreak occurred in 2022, and a domestic outbreak started in South Korea in April 2023. This study aimed to evaluate the clinical characteristics, viral shedding, and immune response of mpox in South Korea. MethodsPatients hospitalized with mpox in the National Medical Center between September 2022 and June 2023 were included in this study. Oropharyngeal (OP), anogenital lesion (AL), and skin lesion (SL) swabs and blood samples were collected, and monkeypox virus (MPXV) DNA using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and culture assays were performed. Neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) against MPXV A.2.1, B.1.1, and B.1.3 were detected using plaque reduction neutralization tests. ResultsEighteen patients were enrolled, of whom 17 (94.4 %) were male, with a median (IQR) age of 32.5 (24–51) years. While nine (50 %) were HIV-infected individuals, none of them revealed CD4+ counts less than 200 cells/μL. MPXV DNA was detected in 87.3 % and 82.7 % of patient's ALs and SLs, respectively, until 2 weeks after symptom onset. While MPXV was isolated for up to 15 days in all three sample types, the culture positivity decreased to 53.8 % and 42.9 % in ALs and SLs after 10 days, respectively, and 28.6 % and 22.2 %, respectively, after 2 weeks from symptom onset. The NAb titers against MPXV A.2.1 were significantly lower than those against B.1.1 and B.1.3. ConclusionsInfectious MPXV was isolated from various anatomical sites up to 15 days after symptom onset. The MPXV NAb response was varied among different lineages, and this implies limited cross-lineage protection.

Ebola Virus Disease Outbreaks: Lessons Learned From Past and Facing Future Challenges.

The purpose of this review is to examine African Ebola outbreaks from their first discovery to the present, to determine how the medical and public health response has changed and identify the causes for those changes. We sought to describe what is now known about the epidemiology and spread of Ebola virus disease (EVD) from the significant outbreaks that have occurred and outbreak control methods applied under often challenging circumstances. Given the substantial role that the U.S. Government and the U.S. DoD have played in the 2014 to 2016 West African Ebola outbreak, the role of the DoD and the U.S. Africa Command in controlling EVD is described. A descriptive method design was used to collect and analyze all available Ebola outbreak literature using the PubMed database. An initial literature search was conducted by searching for, obtaining, and reading original source articles on all major global Ebola outbreaks. To conduct a focused search, we used initial search terms "Ebola outbreak," "Ebola virus disease," "Ebola response," "Ebola countermeasures," and also included each country's name where Ebola cases are known to have occurred. From the 4,673 unique articles obtained from this search and subsequent article title review, 307 articles were identified for potential inclusion. Following abstract and article review, 45 original source articles were used to compile the history of significant Ebola outbreaks. From this compilation, articles focused on each respective subsection of this review to delineate and describe the history of EVD and response, identifying fundamental changes, were obtained and incorporated. We present known Ebola virus and disease attributes, including a general description, seasonality and location, transmission capacity, clinical symptoms, surveillance, virology, historical EVD outbreaks and response, international support for Ebola outbreak response, U.S. DoD support, medical countermeasures supporting outbreak response, remaining gaps to include policy limitations, regional instability, climate change, migration, and urbanization, public health education and infrastructure, and virus persistence and public awareness. The health and societal impacts of EVD on Africa has been far-reaching, with about 35,000 cases and over 15,000 deaths, with small numbers of cases spreading globally. However, the history of combatting EVD reveals that there is considerable hope for African nations to quickly and successfully respond to Ebola outbreaks, through use of endemic resources including Africa CDC and African Partner Outbreak Response Alliance and the U.S. Africa Command with greater DoD reachback. Although there remains much to be learned about the Ebola virus and EVD including whether the potential for novel strains to become deadly emerging infections, invaluable vaccines, antivirals, and public health measures are now part of the resources that can be used to combat this disease.

Emerging evidence of seed transmission of begomoviruses: implications in global circulation and disease outbreak.

Begomoviruses (family Geminiviridae) are known for causing devastating diseases in fruit, fibre, pulse, and vegetable crops throughout the world. Begomoviruses are transmitted in the field exclusively through insect vector whitefly (Bemisia tabaci), and the frequent outbreaks of begomoviruses are attributed largely due to the abundance of whitefly in the agri-ecosystem. Begomoviruses being phloem-borne were known not be transmitted through seeds of the infected plants. The recent findings of seed transmission of begomoviruses brought out a new dimension of begomovirus perpetuation and dissemination. The first convincing evidence of seed transmission of begomoviruses was known in 2015 for sweet potato leaf curl virus followed by several begomoviruses, like bhendi yellow vein mosaic virus, bitter gourd yellow mosaic virus, dolichos yellow mosaic virus, mungbean yellow mosaic virus, mungbean yellow mosaic India virus, pepper yellow leaf curl Indonesia virus, tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus, tomato yellow leaf curl virus, tomato yellow leaf curl Sardinia virus, and okra yellow mosaic Mexico virus. These studies brought out two perspectives of seed-borne nature of begomoviruses: (i) the presence of begomovirus in the seed tissues derived from the infected plants but no expression of disease symptoms in the progeny seedlings and (ii) the seed infection successfully transmitted the virus to cause disease to the progeny seedlings. It seems that the seed transmission of begomovirus is a feature of a specific combination of host-genotype and virus strain, rather than a universal phenomenon. This review comprehensively describes the seed transmitted begomoviruses reported in the last 9 years and the possible mechanism of seed transmission. An emphasis is placed on the experimental results that proved the seed transmission of various begomoviruses, factors affecting seed transmission and impact of begomovirus seed transmission on virus circulation, outbreak of the disease, and management strategies.

Adapting an artificial intelligence sexually transmitted diseases symptom checker tool for Mpox detection: the HeHealth experience.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications have shown promise in the management of pandemics. In response to the global Monkeypox (Mpox) outbreak, the HeHealth.ai team leveraged an existing tool to screen for sexually transmitted diseases (STD) to develop a digital screening test for symptomatic Mpox using AI. Before the global Mpox outbreak, the team developed a smartphone app (HeHealth) where app users can use a smartphone to photograph their own penises to screen for symptomatic STD. The AI model initially used 5000 cases and a modified convolutional neural network to output prediction scores across visually diagnosable penis pathologies including syphilis, herpes simplex virus, and human papillomavirus. A total of about 22,000 users had downloaded the HeHealth app, and ~21,000 images were analysed using HeHealth AI technology. We then used formative research, stakeholder engagement, rapid consolidation images, a validation study, and implementation of the tool. A total of 1000 Mpox-related images had been used to train the Mpox symptom checker tool. Based on an internal validation, our digital symptom checker tool showed specificity of 87% and sensitivity of 90% for symptomatic Mpox. Several hurdles identified included issues of data privacy and security for app users, initial lack of data to train the AI tool, and the potential generalisability of input data. We offer several suggestions to help others get started on similar projects in emergency situations, including engaging a wide range of stakeholders, having a multidisciplinary team, prioritising pragmatism, as well as the concept that 'big data' in fact is made up of 'small data'.

Raising Health Awareness in Rural Communities: A Randomized Experiment in Bangladesh and India

Abstract Delivering validated information to rural areas is a major challenge in low-income countries. In this paper, we study information provision to rural communities in the context of a global outbreak of an infectious disease—COVID-19. Two weeks after the initial lockdown in March 2020, we conducted a randomized experiment in rural Bangladesh and India to disseminate health information over the phone. We find that relative to information provided via SMS, phone calls can significantly improve people’s awareness and compliance with health guidelines. We also find compliance to be substantially higher among women, which also persists after three months of the campaign.

Informed, but uncertain: managing transmission risk and isolation in the 2022 mpox outbreak among gay and bisexual men in Australia

In 2022, a global outbreak of mpox (formerly ‘monkeypox’) emerged in non-endemic countries, including Australia, predominantly affecting gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men. Public health advice on transmission and isolation emerged rapidly from different sources, sometimes conflicting and producing uncertainty. Using the concept of ‘counterpublic health’, which acknowledges the incorporation of official science and experiences of affected communities into embodied practice, this paper investigates how people affected by mpox in Australia managed risk of transmission and navigated self-isolation. In-depth interviews were conducted with 16 people: 13 people diagnosed with mpox and three close contacts. All participants were cisgender gay and bisexual men living in Australia. Participants thought critically about public health advice, often finding it restrictive and unresponsive to the needs of people with mpox. Participants’ decisions about reducing mpox risk and isolating often drew on experiences with other infections (i.e. HIV; COVID-19) and were made collaboratively with the people closest to them (e.g. partners, friends, family) to sustain relationships. Future public health responses to infectious disease outbreaks would benefit from identifying more opportunities to formalise and embed mechanisms to obtain feedback from affected communities so as to inform responses.

Visual attention is not attuned to non-human animal targets’ pathogenicity: an evolutionary mismatch perspective

A considerable amount of research has revealed that there exists an evolutionary mismatch between ancestral environments and conditions following the rise of agriculture regarding the contact between humans and animal reservoirs of infectious diseases. Based on this evolutionary mismatch framework, we examined whether visual attention exhibits adaptive attunement toward animal targets’ pathogenicity. Consistent with our predictions, faces bearing heuristic infection cues held attention to a greater extent than did animal vectors of zoonotic infectious diseases. Moreover, the results indicated that attention showed a specialized vigilance toward processing facial cues connoting the presence of infectious diseases, whereas it was allocated comparably between animal disease vectors and disease-irrelevant animals. On the other hand, the pathogen salience manipulation employed to amplify the participants’ contextual-level anti-pathogen motives did not moderate the selective allocation of attentional resources. The fact that visual attention seems poorly equipped to detect and encode animals’ zoonotic transmission risk supports the idea that our evolved disease avoidance mechanisms might have limited effectiveness in combating global outbreaks originating from zoonotic emerging infectious diseases.

Understanding the biology of monkeypox virus to prevent future outbreaks.

Historically, monkeypox (mpox) was a zoonotic disease endemic in Africa. However, in 2022, a global outbreak occurred following a substantial increase in cases in Africa, coupled with spread by international travellers to other continents. Between January 2022 and October 2023, about 91,000 confirmed cases from 115 countries were reported, leading the World Health Organization to declare a public health emergency. The basic biology of monkeypox virus (MPXV) can be inferred from other poxviruses, such as vaccinia virus, and confirmed by genome sequencing. Here the biology of MPXV is reviewed, together with a discussion of adaptive changes during MPXV evolution and implications for transmission. Studying MPXV biology is important to inform specific host interactions, to aid in ongoing outbreaks and to predict those in the future.

Global Re-emergence of Monkeypox: A Synoptic Review

AbstractAs the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic continues to rage, the unprecedented manifold increase in monkeypox (mpox) cases throughout the world is raising qualms about a possible pandemic. As of January 2024, the disease has been reported in around 116 countries, with nearly 92,500 confirmed cases and 170 deaths. In this mini-review, we have endeavored to cover multiple aspects of the mpox disease. Mpox virus is an enveloped double-stranded DNA virus that belongs to the Orthopoxvirus genus. The disease is endemic in certain African countries. Until recently, however, the disease was rarely reported in Europe and the United States. In contrast to the previous outbreaks outside Africa, reported cases in the 2022 outbreak did not travel to the endemic areas. Superspreading events at mass gatherings, multiple-partner sexual encounters, and international travel were major drivers of the recent global outbreak of mpox. The 2022 mpox virus may have undergone accelerated evolution. It diverges from the related 2018 to 2019 viruses by around 50 single-nucleotide polymorphisms, some of which brought about amino acid changes in immunogenic surface glycoprotein B21. Differential diagnosis for mpox could be quite challenging since it can masquerade as a wide variety of illnesses. Worse still, some patients may be asymptomatic or show subtle symptoms. The infection is confirmed by conventional or real-time polymerase chain reaction on lesion material. Although there is no specific therapy approved for mpox infections, two antivirals (tecovirimat and brincidofovir) and vaccinia immune globulin may be used. Vaccines also provide protection against mpox when properly administered prior to exposure. Finally, the implementation of preventive measures is of paramount importance, especially in regions where mpox transmission is widespread and among high-risk populations.

Predicting vaccine effectiveness for mpox

The Modified Vaccinia Ankara vaccine developed by Bavarian Nordic (MVA-BN) was widely deployed to prevent mpox during the 2022 global outbreak. This vaccine was initially approved for mpox based on its reported immunogenicity (from phase I/II trials) and effectiveness in animal models, rather than evidence of clinical efficacy. However, no validated correlate of protection after vaccination has been identified. Here we performed a systematic search and meta-analysis of the available data to test whether vaccinia-binding ELISA endpoint titer is predictive of vaccine effectiveness against mpox. We observe a significant correlation between vaccine effectiveness and vaccinia-binding antibody titers, consistent with the existing assumption that antibody levels may be a correlate of protection. Combining this data with analysis of antibody kinetics after vaccination, we predict the durability of protection after vaccination and the impact of dose spacing. We find that delaying the second dose of MVA-BN vaccination will provide more durable protection and may be optimal in an outbreak with limited vaccine stock. Although further work is required to validate this correlate, this study provides a quantitative evidence-based approach for using antibody measurements to predict the effectiveness of mpox vaccination.

Salmonella Typhimurium outbreak caused by contaminated chocolate highlights the importance of food hygiene and a socially responsible food chain

Recent global salmonella outbreak was linked to chocolate products but potential role of cocoa beans has been neglected. Chocolate related salmonella outbreaks have occurred mostly during low cocoa price levels. Food business operators should ensure hygiene at all production stages. These outbreaks highlight corporate social responsibility while demonstrating the need of multi-professional approaches.

Rescue and recovery: The COVID and post-COVID responses of apprenticeship systems

ABSTRACT Few changes have been so abruptly disruptive to apprenticeships worldwide as the global COVID outbreak from early 2020 onwards. Because apprenticeships involve experience in workplaces (normally via employment), as well as participation in education systems, the effects were especially serious. There was extra urgency to policy responses because apprenticeships are disproportionately, and in some countries, exclusively, undertaken by young people. There were no worldwide ‘answers’ as to what to do, as apprenticeship systems vary greatly among countries. The paper examines the development of apprenticeship-related measures in several countries worldwide, with a particular focus on Australia and England. The paper uses statistical data, government announcements, guidance from stakeholders and officials, and also a systematic analysis of presentations by leading country experts at an online international apprenticeship conference in May 2021. Reflecting on common concerns on apprenticeship system, the paper critiques and analyses the effects and potential effects of COVID and post-COVID measures on apprenticeship systems.