Global Mitigation Policies Research Articles

Strategic planning for Taipei sponge city

With the accumulation of industrial development and human development, the effects of global climate change are becoming more and more obvious, and because of the increasingly obvious warming phenomenon and impact, countries began to put their hand on global warming mitigation and adaptation measures and policies, hoping to reduce the negative impact of global warming on people’s living and natural environment. This study explores the problems in global climate change and global warming, and aims to examine how to cope with variation of extreme climate and the highly populated environment in Taipei, and how to practice the concept of "Taipei Sponge Livable City" project as the main axis. First, this study elucidates the context of Sponge City concept, relevant academic research and case studies. This study then analyzes Taipei’s water environmental changes, the implementation of policies and projects. By translating the planning concept into a tree-like structure, on the one hand, it can analyze the relevant policies and the works of the City Department; on the other hand, it can set up a sound direction and prospect for the Taipei Sponge City Policy. Moreover, by referencing to numerous Sponge City examples, this study can improve the water policy and continuously construct the "Sponge Livable City" for Taipei City.

Land use projections in China under global socioeconomic and emission scenarios: Utilizing a scenario-based land-use change assessment framework

Abstract Land-use changes under the shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) and the representative concentration pathways (RCPs) have been analyzed globally, but how regional and national land use respond to the global mitigation policies is seldom explored, which poses difficulties in regional environmental adaptation and decision-making. China, as a major food consuming and biofuel production country, would suffer great uncertainties in future land-use dynamics under the global scenarios. Here, we present a scenario-based land-use change assessment framework, integrating Global Change Assessment Model and Future Land Use Simulation Model, to evaluate the potential land use projections of China from 2010 to 2100. Eight scenarios with different combinations of SSPs and radiative forcing targets of RCPs are designed, to analyze the impacts of the global socioeconomic and emission assumptions on regional mitigations and land-use changes. We recalibrated the historical land use data and urban dynamics of China to improve the consistency of modeling results with the actual regional changes. Meanwhile, differences in land use dynamics are demonstrated by spatial downscaling, which are jointly affected by the global assumptions and local driving factors, showing a fierce competition between the crop and forest. We find that the regional crop changes are sensitive to the socioeconomic dynamics as well as the bioenergy production, while different carbon regimes drive the forest changes in unexpected ways. Besides, overall heterogeneous landscape patterns and similar spatial suitability maps are found in distributions of land-use change between the emission and socioeconomic scenarios. The results indicate that this framework embedded with the consideration of anthropogenic managements as well as the detailed interactions of local environments provides an effective way to investigate regional land use response to a range of alternative future pathways.

Tissue carbon concentration of 175 Mexican forest species

Abstract: Reliable calculations of carbon stocks in forest ecosystems are crucial for proper implementation of global warming mitigation policies. Accurate estimations depend upon applying the correct factor of carbon (C) concentration for different forest species and tissues instead of the often assumed 50% carbon content. Despite the high forest species richness in Mexico and the increasing CO2 emissions, data on carbon concentrations in forest plant tissues are scarce. In this study, we determined variation in C concentration of different tissues for 175 plant species common in Mexican forests. C contents were estimated and contrasted for plant distribution, taxa, and plant structure (main stems, branches, twigs, bark, leaves, buds, fruits, roots and root cuticles). The mean C concentration across species was 44.7%. Species significantly differed in C concentration by tissue, environment and taxa. These multi-species data contribute to improve precision on estimates of C balance in terrestrial ecosystems, reducing the uncertainty in C inventories in Mexico and elsewhere.

The impact of greenhouse gas emissions in the EU food chain: A quantitative and economic assessment using an environmentally extended input-output approach

In order to provide a valuable knowledge basis for future global warming mitigation strategies and policy implementation, this study carries out an integrated assessment of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions throughout the EU-25 food supply chain, considering the highest available level of product disaggregation. Based on an environmentally extended input-output (EE-IO) approach, we estimate the environmental impacts resulting from the ‘food and non-alcoholic beverages’ supply chain from production to waste management, by 44 food products, grouped in 11 categories. Further, we perform a Structural Path Analysis to identify the hotspots along the supply chain with the highest emissions. Finally, we carry out an assessment of the economic impact of GHG emissions on each product category, considering both the related environmental pressure intensity and the cost of environmental damage (social cost). The results offer new insights on the amount, composition and origin of GHG emissions in the food supply chain. More precisely, detailed evidence is provided in support of the findings of previous studies that have shown that the contribution of farm-level activities on overall GHG emissions is mostly related to N2O and CH4 emissions. Moreover, we highlight the large environmental impact associated with CO2 emissions, even if they are scattered among a very high number of activities, with a limited contribution each. Hence, we infer that multiple hotspots for CO2 exist along the whole supply chain and that many of them occur in downstream stages, e.g. transportation, processing, packaging, waste disposal, as well as in the cold chain activities. As for the economic assessment of emissions, the highest costs are attributed to the highest emitting product categories, but the share of social costs of these emissions as compared to the overall production value, affect each product differently. Hence, the impact of a hypothetical price control measure, introduced to internalize the social cost of emissions, would vary significantly from one product category to another. Overall, our findings suggest that, in order to achieve effective and efficient GHG mitigation in the food system, an integrated approach is required, including both concrete technological and managerial measures at various stages of the food supply chain and for specific product categories, as well as appropriate economic incentive-based mechanisms accounting for the social cost of damage (e.g. a ‘carbon tax’), that can prompt polluters to reduce their emissions along the whole supply chain.

A multi-model assessment of the co-benefits of climate mitigation for global air quality

We present a model comparison study that combines multiple integrated assessment models with a reduced-form global air quality model to assess the potential co-benefits of global climate mitigation policies in relation to the World Health Organization (WHO) goals on air quality and health. We include in our assessment, a range of alternative assumptions on the implementation of current and planned pollution control policies. The resulting air pollution emission ranges significantly extend those in the Representative Concentration Pathways. Climate mitigation policies complement current efforts on air pollution control through technology and fuel transformations in the energy system. A combination of stringent policies on air pollution control and climate change mitigation results in 40% of the global population exposed to PM levels below the WHO air quality guideline; with the largest improvements estimated for India, China, and Middle East. Our results stress the importance of integrated multisector policy approaches to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.

Shared Socio-Economic Pathways of the Energy Sector – Quantifying the Narratives

Energy is crucial for supporting basic human needs, development and well-being. The future evolution of the scale and character of the energy system will be fundamentally shaped by socioeconomic conditions and drivers, available energy resources, technologies of energy supply and transformation, and end-use energy demand. However, because energy-related activities are significant sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and other environmental and social externalities, energy system development will also be influenced by social acceptance and strategic policy choices. All of these uncertainties have important implications for many aspects of economic and environmental sustainability, and climate change in particular. In the Shared-Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) framework these uncertainties are structured into five narratives, arranged according to the challenges to climate change mitigation and adaptation. In this study we explore future energy sector developments across the five SSPs using Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs), and we also provide summary output and analysis for selected scenarios of global emissions mitigation policies. The mitigation challenge strongly corresponds with global baseline energy sector growth over the 21st century, which varies between 40% and 230% depending on final energy consumer behavior, technological improvements, resource availability and policies. The future baseline CO2-emission range is even larger, as the most energy-intensive SSP also incorporates a comparatively high share of carbon-intensive fossil fuels, and vice versa. Inter-regional disparities in the SSPs are consistent with the underlying socioeconomic assumptions; these differences are particularly strong in the SSPs with large adaptation challenges, which have little inter-regional convergence in long-term income and final energy demand levels. The scenarios presented do not include feedbacks of climate change on energy sector development. The energy sector SSPs with and without emissions mitigation policies are introduced and analyzed here in order to contribute to future research in climate sciences, mitigation analysis, and studies on impacts, adaptation and vulnerability.

Highlighting Photocatalytic H2-Production from Natural Seawater and the Utilization of Quasi-Photosynthetic Absorption as Two Ultimate Solutions for CO2Mitigation

This paper reviews five potential solutions for CO2mitigation and theoretically analyzes related outstanding questions. Emission trading under the global mitigation objectives and policies is in dilemma because reducing emission while utilizing fossil fuels is a difficult balance. CO2capture and sequestration (CCS) technique offers a comprehensive solution, but it is risky and expensive. Analyses of the 100% renewable energy plan suggest hydrogen as a fuel of zero CO2emission. Photocatalytic splitting of natural seawater can be an ultimate scheme for the hydrogen production, providing that the associated technological constraints would be overcome. Soil CO2absorption in the arid regions (terms such absorption “quasi-photosynthetic absorption”) implies a potential solution, but the kinetics and overall importance are undetermined. Further investigations of these unresolved issues are strongly needed to realize the global CO2mitigation target. Comparing the five potential solutions, photocatalytic H2-production from natural seawater and the utilization of quasi-photosynthetic absorption are highlighted as two ultimate solutions.

Climate Change Adaptation. Challenges and Opportunities for a Smart Urban Growth

Climate change is one of the main environmental issues challenging cities in the 21th century. At present, more than half of the world population lives in cities and the latter are responsible for 60% to 80% of global energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which are the main causes of the change in climate conditions. In the meantime, they are seriously threatened by the heterogeneous climate-related phenomena, very often exacerbated by the features of the cities themselves. In the last decade, international and European efforts have been mainly focused on mitigation rather than on adaptation strategies. Europe is one of the world leaders in global mitigation policies, while the issue of adaptation has gained growing importance in the last years. As underlined by the EU Strategy on adaptation to climate change, even though climate change mitigation still remains a priority for the global community, large room has to be devoted to adaptation measures, in order to effectively face the unavoidable impacts and related economic, environmental and social costs of climate change (EC, 2013). Thus, measures for adaptation to climate change are receiving an increasing financial support and a growing number of European countries are implementing national and urban adaptation strategies to deal with the actual and potential climate change impacts. According to the above considerations, this paper explores strengths and weaknesses of current adaptation strategies in European cities. First the main suggestions of the European Community to improve urban adaptation to climate change are examined; then, some recent Adaptation Plans are analyzed, in order to highlight challenges and opportunities arising from the adaptation processes at urban level and to explore the potential of Adaptation Plans to promote a smart growth in the European cities.

Energy balances and greenhouse gas-mitigation potentials of bioenergy cropping systems (Miscanthus, rapeseed, and maize) based on farming conditions in Western Germany

Biomass for bioenergy is an important option within global change mitigation policies. The present research focused on energy net production, net reduction of greenhouse gases (GHG) (considered as CO2-equivalents), and energy output:input ratio of the energy cropping systems ‘rapeseed’, ‘maize’, and ‘Miscanthus’. The system-specific main products were biodiesel (rapeseed), electricity from biogas (maize), and Miscanthus chips (loose, chopped material); the related substituted fossil resources were diesel fuel (rapeseed), electricity from the German energy mix (maize), and heating oil (Miscanthus). However, research did not aim for a direct quantitative comparison of the crops. The study followed a case study approach with averaged data from commercial farms within an enclosed agricultural area (<5 km²) in Western Germany. Cultivation techniques were considered as communicated by farmers and operation managers; the diesel fuel consumption of agricultural machinery was modeled using an online-based calculator of the German Association for Technology and Structures in Agriculture (KTBL). Overall, rounded net energy production amounted to 66 GJ ha−1 (rapeseed), 91 GJ ha−1 (maize), and 254 GJ ha−1 yr−1 (Miscanthus); the related energy output:input ratios were 4.7 (rapeseed), 5.5 (maize), and 47.3 (Miscanthus), respectively. Compared to the respective fossil fuel-related energy supply, CO2-equivalent reduction potential ranged between 30 and 76% for electrical energy from maize biomass, 29–82% for biodiesel from rapeseed, and 96–117% for Miscanthus chips, depending on whether or not the accruing by-products rapeseed cake, glycerin (rapeseed cropping system), and waste heat (maize) were considered. True ‘CO2-neutrality’ was only reached by the Miscanthus cropping system and was related to an additional credit from carbon sequestration in soil during the cultivation period; thus, this cropping system could be attributed to be a CO2-sink.The study indicated that bioenergy can be produced sustainably under commercial farming conditions in terms of a significantly reduced consumption of natural resources.

CCS, Nuclear Power and Biomass An Assessment of Option Triangle under Global Warming Mitigation Policy by an Integrated Assessment Model MARIA-23

It is well understood that the global climate change caused by the increase of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission would be a serious barrier towards the sustainable development. Nuclear power, CCS and biomass have been regarded as the major options in the GHG mitigation policy. However, since the social acceptance of nuclear power expansion has seriously been changed after the gigantic earthquake on March 11, 2011 followed by the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power station accident, the energy policy makers are forced to consider both the global warming and the decline of nuclear power simultaneously. This study attempts to address the following key questions: (1) how much additional costs or decline of production will be needed when nuclear power expansion is limited under the GHG emission control policies and (2) to what extent the potential of the biomass and CCS could compensate for the nuclear power reductions. We expand an integrated assessment model, MARIA-23 (Multiregional Approach for Resource and Industry Allocation) to deal with the CCS options and biomass options taking into account the additional carbon emission by cultivation. The simulation results show the interrelationships of the carbon mitigation contributions of the above three major options under various scenarios.

Exploring the scope for complementary sub-global policy to mitigate CO2 from shipping

For a high probability of avoiding dangerous interference with the climate system, all sectors must decarbonise over coming decades. Although shipping is an energy efficient transport mode, its emissions continue to grow. Compounding this, the sector's complexity, exclusion from emission inventories and slow progress towards a mitigation strategy, limit drivers towards meaningful change. Whilst there remains a preference within the industry for global mitigation policies, the urgency of required emission cuts necessitates exploration of complimentary sub-global measures. The debate surrounding such measures tends to focus on apportioning global shipping emissions to nations. To explore the policy implications of apportionment, the UK is used in this paper to illustrate how available apportionment regimes produce a wide range of emission estimates. Moreover, in the absence of transparent fuel consumption and freight data, they have limited sensitivity, rendering them currently obsolete for monitoring purposes. Nations, regions and organisations influence shipping, particularly in relation to operations, yet debate surrounding apportionment has arguably delayed consideration of sub-global polices and indicators. This paper makes a case for putting the apportionment debate aside in the short-term to open out the full span of options, consider influence over aspects of the shipping system, and how to monitor success.

Co-benefits of post-2012 global climate mitigation policies

This paper provides an analysis of co-benefits for traditional air pollutants made possible through global climate policies using the Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies (GAINS) model in the time horizon up to 2050. The impact analysis is based on projections of energy consumption provided by the Prospective Outlook for the Long term Energy System (POLES) model for a scenario without any global greenhouse gas mitigation efforts, and for a 2°C climate policy scenario which assumes internationally coordinated action to mitigate climate change. Outcomes of the analysis are reported globally and for key world regions: the European Union (EU), China, India and the United States. The assessment takes into account current air pollution control legislation in each country. Expenditures on air pollution control under the global climate mitigation regime are reduced in 2050 by 250 billion € when compared to the case without climate measures. Around one third of financial co-benefits estimated world-wide in this study by 2050 occur in China, while an annual cost saving of 35 billion (Euros) € is estimated for the EU if the current air pollution legislation and climate policies are adopted in parallel. Health impacts of air pollution are quantified in terms of loss of life expectancy related to the exposure from anthropogenic emissions of fine particles, as well as in terms of premature mortality due to ground-level ozone. For example in China, current ambient concentrations of particulate matter are responsible for about 40 months-losses in the average life expectancy. In 2050, the climate strategies reduce this indicator by 50 %. Decrease of ozone concentrations estimated for the climate scenario might save nearly 20,000 cases of premature death per year. Similarly significant are reductions of impacts on ecosystems due to acidification and eutrophication.

Global scenarios of air pollutant emissions from road transport through to 2050.

This paper presents global scenarios of sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM) emissions from road transport through to 2050, taking into account the potential impacts of: (1) the timing of air pollutant emission regulation implementation in developing countries; (2) global CO2 mitigation policy implementation; and (3) vehicle cost assumptions, on study results. This is done by using a global energy system model treating the transport sector in detail. The major conclusions are the following. First, as long as non-developed countries adopt the same vehicle emission standards as in developed countries within a 30-year lag, global emissions of SO2, NOx, and PM from road vehicles decrease substantially over time. Second, light-duty vehicles and heavy-duty trucks make a large and increasing contribution to future global emissions of SO2, NOx, and PM from road vehicles. Third, the timing of air pollutant emission regulation implementation in developing countries has a large impact on future global emissions of SO2, NOx, and PM from road vehicles, whereas there is a possibility that global CO2 mitigation policy implementation has a comparatively small impact on them.

Urbanization, Landscape Appropriation and Climate Change in Greenland

Approximately 80% of the population in Greenland lives in towns. This constitutes a challenge for resource managers as people are increasingly aspiring to use the landscape for a variety of purposes and activities due to the heterogeneity of the city. This article unfolds how urbanization is taking place in Greenland and how it reorganizes the society and the landscape. Four challenges related to different positions of the city of Nuuk will be touched upon: locally, the heterogeneity of the city is a challenge to the environmental management authorities; regionally, the city has to deal with societal changes due to increased industrialization; nationally, the city has to act as springboard for increased self-rule; and finally, the city has to position itself strategically in a globalized world where the Arctic finds itself in a double position: on the one hand, it has to deal progressively with the increased interests from global companies, and on the other hand, it has to navigate in relation to global mitigation policies developed to halt the accelerating climate changes. The four challenges will be understood within a framework of urbanization. The article argues that a stronger focus on urbanization and the urban phenomenon as omnipresent points to some shortcomings of the concept of resilience which has become so popular within Arctic research in general and within climate change studies in particular.

Current and future CO&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;2&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt; emissions from drained peatlands in Southeast Asia

Abstract. Forested tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia store at least 42 000 Million metric tonnes (Mt) of soil carbon. Human activity and climate change threatens the stability of this large pool, which has been decreasing rapidly over the last few decades owing to deforestation, drainage and fire. In this paper we estimate the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions resulting from drainage of lowland tropical peatland for agricultural and forestry development which dominates the perturbation of the carbon balance in the region. Present and future emissions from drained peatlands are quantified using data on peatland extent and peat thickness, present and projected land use, water management practices and decomposition rates. Of the 27.1 Million hectares (Mha) of peatland in Southeast Asia, 12.9 Mha had been deforested and mostly drained by 2006. This latter area is increasing rapidly because of increasing land development pressures. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission caused by decomposition of drained peatlands was between 355 Mt y−1 and 855 Mt y−1 in 2006 of which 82% came from Indonesia, largely Sumatra and Kalimantan. At a global scale, CO2 emission from peatland drainage in Southeast Asia is contributing the equivalent of 1.3% to 3.1% of current global CO2 emissions from the combustion of fossil fuel. If current peatland development and management practices continue, these emissions are predicted to continue for decades. This warrants inclusion of tropical peatland CO2 emissions in global greenhouse gas emission calculations and climate mitigation policies. Uncertainties in emission calculations are discussed and research needs for improved estimates are identified.

Infinite uncertainty, forgotten feedbacks, and cost-benefit analysis of climate policy

Tol (2003) questioned the applicability of expected cost-benefit analysis to global mitigation policy when he found evidence that the uncertainty surrounding estimates of the marginal damage of climate change could be infinite even if total damages were finite. Yohe (2003) suggested that this problem could be alleviated if international development aid were directed at eliminating the source of the problem - climate induced negative growth rates in a few regions along a handful of troublesome scenarios. The hypothesis about adding a second policy lever to the climate policy calculus is shown to hold, though perhaps not as robustly as originally thought. A portfolio of international policies with at least two independent tools can avoid infinite uncertainty on the margins and the associated implications for global mitigation policy at a reasonable price even in the relatively unlikely event that climate change causes negative economic growth in a region or two.

Cooling Down Hot Air: A Global CGE Analysis of Post-Kyoto Carbon Abatement Strategies

The Kyoto Protocol marks a break-through in global warming mitigation policies as it sets legally binding emissions targets for major emitting regions. However, realisation of the Protocol depends on the clarification of several issues one of which is the permissible scope of international emissions trading between signatory countries. Unrestricted trade produces hot air when signatory countries whose Kyoto targets are well above their business as usual emissions trade in larger amounts of abundant emission rights. Concerns on hot air motivated proposals for caps on emissions trading by the EU. These caps are strictly refused by the USA and other non-European industrialized countries who want to exploit the full efficiency gains from trade. In this paper we show that there are cooling down strategies which can reconcile both positions. International permit trade provides enough efficiency gains to make all signatory countries better off than without permit trade while mitigating hot air. In other words, part of the efficiency gains from free trade could be used to pay for higher abatement targets of signatory countries which assure the same environmental effectiveness as compared to strictly domestic action or restricted permit trade.

Cooling down hot air: a global CGE analysis of post-Kyoto carbon abatement strategies

The Kyoto Protocol marks a break-through in global warming mitigation policies as it sets legally binding emissions targets for major emitting regions. However, realisation of the Protocol depends on the clarification of several issues one of which is the permissible scope of international emissions trading between signatory countries. Unrestricted trade produces hot air when signatory countries whose Kyoto targets are well above their business as usual emissions trade in larger amounts of ?abundant? emission rights. Concerns on hot air motivated proposals for caps on emissions trading by the EU. These caps are strictly refused by the USA and other non-European industrialized countries who want to exploit the full efficiency gains from trade. In this paper we show that there are cooling down strategies which can reconcile both positions. International permit trade provides enough efficiency gains to make all signatory countries better off than without permit trade while mitigating hot air. In other words, part of the efficiency gains from free trade could be used to pay for higher abatement targets of signatory countries which assure the same environmental effectiveness as compared to strictly domestic action or restricted permit trade.

Cooling down hot air: a global CGE analysis of post-Kyoto carbon abatement strategies

The Kyoto Protocol marks a breakthrough in global warming mitigation policies as it sets legally binding emissions targets for major emitting regions. However, realization of the Protocol depends on the clarification of several issues, one of which is the permissible scope of international emissions trading between signatory countries. Unrestricted trade produces hot air when signatory countries, whose Kyoto targets are well above their business as usual emissions, trade in larger amounts of “abundant” emission rights. Concerns on hot air motivated proposals for caps on emissions trading by the EU. These caps are strictly refused by the USA and other non-European industrialized countries who want to exploit the full efficiency gains from trade. In this paper we show that there are “cooling down” strategies which can reconcile both positions. International permit trade provides enough efficiency gains to make all signatory countries better off than they would be without permit trade while mitigating hot air. In other words, part of the efficiency gains from free trade could be used to pay for higher abatement targets of signatory countries which assure the same environmental effectiveness as compared to strictly domestic action or restricted permit trade.