Global Diversification Research Articles

Grassland expansions promoted global diversification of the Pardosa wolf spiders during the late Cenozoic (Araneae, Lycosidae)

Grassland expansions promoted global diversification of the Pardosa wolf spiders during the late Cenozoic (Araneae, Lycosidae)

SPORTS AND INTERNATIONAL REPUTATION: HOW QATAR AND SAUDI ARABIA UTILIZE SPORTS TO ENHANCE THEIR IMAGE

Modern international relations contemplate the rise of sports as an effective instrument of foreign policy, enabling nations to enhance their global reputation and project soft power. This article aims to explore the sports diplomacy of Qatar and Saudi Arabia, focusing on their methods of building international reputation and raising the issue of sportswashing as a phenomenon. The foundation of the research is the analysis of official state documents, key sporting events, and recent news surrounding the development of these countries. The major research finding is that both countries use their substantial financial resources to advance their global image and economic diversification. Qatar emphasizes hosting high-profile events, developing sponsorships and partnerships, and investing in international sports entities, while Saudi Arabia focuses on attracting renowned athletes to its domestic league and using their image and fanbase. Key results indicate that Qatar and Saudi Arabia have significantly enhanced their reputation and image by hosting the FIFA World Cup and attracting famous athletes. Yet, another outcome is the rising concern about sportswashing, the concept under which Qatar and Saudi Arabia utilize sports to divert international attention from human rights violations or political problems. The article identifies countermeasures, including leveraging non-state actors, implementing specific regulations, and using boycotts and media campaigns. The work acknowledges the potential of sports diplomacy but underlines the need for solid responses from international actors to address sportswashing. In the end, this analysis contributes to a deeper understanding of the complexities and issues of sports diplomacy in contemporary international relations, offering insights into effective strategies, negative implications, and solutions to them.

Late Cretaceous ammonoids show that drivers of diversification are regionally heterogeneous

Palaeontologists have long sought to explain the diversification of individual clades to whole biotas at global scales. Advances in our understanding of the spatial distribution of the fossil record through geological time, however, has demonstrated that global trends in biodiversity were a mosaic of regionally heterogeneous diversification processes. Drivers of diversification must presumably have also displayed regional variation to produce the spatial disparities observed in past taxonomic richness. Here, we analyse the fossil record of ammonoids, pelagic shelled cephalopods, through the Late Cretaceous, characterised by some palaeontologists as an interval of biotic decline prior to their total extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. We regionally subdivide this record to eliminate the impacts of spatial sampling biases and infer regional origination and extinction rates corrected for temporal sampling biases using Bayesian methods. We then model these rates using biotic and abiotic drivers commonly inferred to influence diversification. Ammonoid diversification dynamics and responses to this common set of diversity drivers were regionally heterogeneous, do not support ecological decline, and demonstrate that their global diversification signal is influenced by spatial disparities in sampling effort. These results call into question the feasibility of seeking drivers of diversity at global scales in the fossil record.

The mediating effect of trust on financial development and stock market comovement in BRICS economies

This study examines the effects of financial development on the stock market comovement of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa (BRICS) on the one hand and the US Dow Jones on the other. Its main goal is to find out if trust has a mediating effect on financial development using data from the World Bank and the World Value Survey (WVS). Panel data analysis along with ARDL methods helped the authors obtain robust results. It was found that financial development plays a significant role in determining stock market comovement among the countries in question and that trust also has a moderating impact. The analysis was extended to the institutional and market factors of financial development. The paper introduces trust as a mediating variable that positively affects financial development, which in turn promotes stock market integration and comovement. Its results imply that investors should consider financial development and trust levels of a country when considering portfolio allocation for global diversification purposes, especially in emerging markets. Countries with insufficient trust levels, like Brazil, could benefit from improving their trust score through enhancing financial development and stability.

Dynamics and timing of diversification events of ciliated eukaryotes from a large phylogenomic perspective

Ciliophora, an exceptionally diverse lineage of unicellular eukaryotes, exhibits a remarkable range of species richness across classes in the ciliate Tree of Life. In this study, we have acquired transcriptome and genome data from 40 representative species in seven ciliate classes. Utilizing 247 genes and 105 taxa, we devised a comprehensive phylogenomic tree for Ciliophora, encompassing over 60 % of orders and constituting the most extensive dataset of ciliate species to date. We established a robust phylogenetic framework that encompasses ambiguous taxa and the major classes within the phylum. Our findings support the monophyly of each of two subphyla (Postciliodesmatophora and Intramacronucleata), along with three subclades (Protocruzia, CONTHREEP, and SAPML) nested within Intramacronucleata, and elucidate evolutionary positions among the major classes within the phylum. Drawing on the robust ciliate Tree of Life and three constraints, we estimated the radiation of Ciliophora around 1175 Ma during the middle of the Proterozoic Eon, and most of the ciliate classes diverged from their sister lineage during the latter half of this period. Additionally, based on the time-calibrated tree and species richness pattern, we investigated net diversification rates of Ciliophora and its classes. The global net diversification rate for Ciliophora was estimated at 0.004979 species/Ma. Heterogeneity in net diversification rates was evident at the class level, with faster rates observed in Oligohymenophorea and Spirotrichea than other classes within the subclades CONTHREEP and SAPML, respectively. Notably, our analysis suggests that variations in net diversification rates, rather than clade ages, appear to contribute to the differences in species richness in Ciliophora at the class level.

How the Belt and Road Initiative Promotes Integration and Upgrading of Emerging Market Supply Chains

This study delves into the trans-formative role of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in fostering the integration and upgrading of supply chains within emerging markets. Conceived as a modern revival and expansion of the ancient Silk Road, the BRI has rapidly evolved into a comprehensive framework for global economic collaboration, with a focus on extensive infrastructure development across continents. This paper offers an in-depth exploration of the BRI's structure, including the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road, underscoring the initiative's key components and its strategic focus on enhancing connectivity. Through the lens of case studies, this research illustrates the BRI's substantial contributions to strengthening trade links, economic cooperation, and the resilience of supply chains. Moreover, it assesses how the BRI promotes improved connectivity, lowers trade barriers, and enhances the skills and abilities of professionals in the logistics industry, thereby boosting trade and investment. Additionally, the study explores future directions, spotlighting emerging trends, challenges, and strategic imperatives for the BRI. In conclusion, it offers insights into how to navigate the future of global economic integration and supply chain diversification through the BRI.

The emergence and circulation of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 subtype C.

Introduction. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 subtype C is the most prevalent globally and is thought to have originated in non-human primates in the Democratic Republic of Congo.Hypothesis/Gap Statement. Although the global dominance of HIV-1 subtype C is well established, a thorough understanding of its evolutionary history and transmission dynamics across various risk populations remains elusive. The current knowledge is insufficient to fully capture the global diversification and dissemination of this subtype.Aim. We for the first time sought to investigate the global evolutionary history and spatiotemporal dynamics of HIV-1 subtype C using a selection of maximum-likelihood-based phylodynamic approaches on a total of 1210 near full-length genomic sequences sampled from 32 countries, collected in 4 continents, with sampling dates between 1986-2019 among various risk groups were analysed.Methodology. We subsampled the HIV-1 subtype C genomic datasets based on continent and risk group traits, and performed nucleotide substitution model selection analysis, maximum likelihood (ML) phylogenetic reconstruction, phylogenetic tree topology similarity analysis, temporal signal analysis and traced the timings of viral spread both geographically and by risk group.Results. Based on the phylodynamic analyses of four datasets (full1210, locrisk626, loc562 and risk393), we inferred the time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) in the 1930s and an evolutionary rate of 0.0023 substitutions per site per year. The total number of introduction events of HIV-1 subtype C between continents and between risk groups is estimated to be 71 and 115, respectively. The largest number of introductions occurred from Africa to Europe (n=32), from not-recorded to heterosexual (n=40) and from heterosexual to not-recorded (n=51) risk groups.Conclusion. Our results emphasize that HIV subtype C has mainly spread from Africa to Europe, likely through heterosexual transmission.

Семиотическая диагностика целей преподавания философии в педагогическом образовании

Modernization of domestic education and global diversification of pedagogical education make it relevant to analyze the role and place of the subject ‘Philosophy’ in order to diagnose new goals for teaching this discipline. Based on the methodological innovation of the semiotic approach proposed by I.V. Melik-Gaykazyan, the correspondence between the semantics of universal competencies and the pragmatics of the formation of individual trajectories for the training of future teachers is established. This correspondence captures the navigational role of philosophy, firstly, in the development of basic academic disciplines, and, secondly, in understanding the continuity of their curricula. The implementation of this role will not happen naturally, since the domestic tradition of university philosophy has its own characteristics, which are retrospectively indicated in the article. The retrospection emphasizes the context in which S.I. Gessen formulated his well-known thesis that pedagogy is an applied philosophy. This thesis is of essential importance for determining the role and place of teaching philosophy for the future teacher training, and also remains relevant in the situation of modern diversification of the goals of pedagogical education. The purpose of teaching philosophy is the propaedeutics of the development of special courses devoted to modern theories and the actual practice of education. At the same time, the actual practice of education takes place in social conditions that transform behavioral and ethical norms, therefore, the goals of teaching philosophy in the context of pedagogical education include explaining intellectual traditions and the limits of their effectiveness in order to find ways to solve situational problems generated by modern communication tools and systems. These situational problems are formed under the influence of multiple factors, and therefore, to solve them, it is necessary to understand the essence of transdisciplinarity. The simultaneous multiplicity of communications and the variability of their formats in specifi c psychological and pedagogical conditions make the modern understanding of theessence of the mediatization phenomenon relevant. Modern requirements for education to ensure the training of unique specialists fixes the need for the formation of tolerance, which is a condition for the implementation of inclusive education. The listed principles of modern philosophical anthropology andpost-non-classical methodology – tolerance, mediatization, transdisciplinarity, multidimensionality – coincide with those competencies which formation can be led by the teaching of philosophy.

A Novel Artificial Electric Field Algorithm for Solving Global Optimization and Real-World Engineering Problems.

The Artificial Electric Field Algorithm (AEFA) stands out as a physics-inspired metaheuristic, drawing inspiration from Coulomb's law and electrostatic force; however, while AEFA has demonstrated efficacy, it can face challenges such as convergence issues and suboptimal solutions, especially in high-dimensional problems. To overcome these challenges, this paper introduces a modified version of AEFA, named mAEFA, which leverages the capabilities of Lévy flights, simulated annealing, and the Adaptive s-best Mutation and Natural Survivor Method (NSM) mechanisms. While Lévy flights enhance exploration potential and simulated annealing improves search exploitation, the Adaptive s-best Mutation and Natural Survivor Method (NSM) mechanisms are employed to add more diversity. The integration of these mechanisms in AEFA aims to expand its search space, enhance exploration potential, avoid local optima, and achieve improved performance, robustness, and a more equitable equilibrium between local intensification and global diversification. In this study, a comprehensive assessment of mAEFA is carried out, employing a combination of quantitative and qualitative measures, on a diverse range of 29 intricate CEC'17 constraint benchmarks that exhibit different characteristics. The practical compatibility of the proposed mAEFA is evaluated on five engineering benchmark problems derived from the civil, mechanical, and industrial engineering domains. Results from the mAEFA algorithm are compared with those from seven recently introduced metaheuristic algorithms using widely adopted statistical metrics. The mAEFA algorithm outperforms the LCA algorithm in all 29 CEC'17 test functions with 100% superiority and shows better results than SAO, GOA, CHIO, PSO, GSA, and AEFA in 96.6%, 96.6%, 93.1%, 86.2%, 82.8%, and 58.6% of test cases, respectively. In three out of five engineering design problems, mAEFA outperforms all the compared algorithms, securing second place in the remaining two problems. Results across all optimization problems highlight the effectiveness and robustness of mAEFA compared to baseline metaheuristics. The suggested enhancements in AEFA have proven effective, establishing competitiveness in diverse optimization problems.

Global diversification, profitability and revenue creation: Evidence from an emerging economy

AbstractThe aim of this article is to examine the impact of global diversification on firm performance. Data for this study were gathered from a total of 714 firms over a period of 5 years, from 2016 to 2020, totalling 2904 firm‐year observations. The relationship between global diversification and firm performance is analysed using ordinary least square (OLS) and quantile regression (QR) approaches. Based on OLS regression, global diversification negatively influences both the ability to create revenue and generate profits, with significant evidence only for revenue. On the other hand, QR analysis presents various perspectives of the relationship. Although global diversification is still negatively associated with the profitability of under‐performing firms, the relationship can be positive once the firms begin to perform well. In terms of revenue creation, its association with global diversification is found to be significantly negative for all levels of revenue. This demonstrates how global diversification can provide a distinctive platform for firms to generate profits even though their ability to make revenue decreases as their performance improves. Policy implications are discussed accordingly.

Intercontinental dispersal and niche fidelity drive 50 million years of global diversification in Vertigo land snails

AbstractAimWe aimed to understand how biogeographical processes and moisture niche ecology contributed to the spatio‐temporal diversification dynamics in the land snail genus Vertigo.LocationGlobal (North America, Europe, Asia, Africa).Time PeriodCenozoic era.Major Taxa StudiedMinute terrestrial snails of the genus Vertigo.MethodsWe reconstructed a time‐calibrated phylogeny of 94 Vertigo taxa (~85% of all known extant species) based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA data. Leveraging this phylogeny with distributional and ecological data from >7000 populations, we performed biogeographic and ecological modelling to investigate evolutionary mechanisms of global Vertigo diversification.ResultsVertigo has diversified since the Early Eocene, ca. 47.6 Ma (95% HPD = 46.0–52.7), with its six subgenera originating from the Late Eocene (30.2–48.7 Ma) to the Early Miocene (13.3–23.0 Ma). Species diversity accumulated linearly, with a slight increase 35–30 and 25–20 Ma, coinciding with the emergence of most subgenera and northern hemisphere cooling, respectively. Biogeographic modelling indicated that most diversification events occurred in sympatry (no range modification), but that rare founder events drove global diversification. Soil moisture conditions, a major variable defining Vertigo niches, displayed significant phylogenetic signal, but varied less among subgenera relative to within. Shifts in biogeographical ranges and moisture niches (or the absence thereof) were significantly associated at macroevolutionary scales, with most niche shifts upon sympatric cladogenesis and hardly any upon founder‐event speciation.Main ConclusionsOur results indicate that ecological shifts in soil moisture niches occasionally drove cladogenesis in sympatry and anagenetic range extensions, but that long‐distance dispersal was mainly successful in the absence of such shifts. A combination of neutral (founder events and drift) and selective mechanisms (adaptive habitat shifts) has determined the macroevolutionary success of Vertigo. Our results imply that species with high niche fidelity or fewer opportunities for long‐distance dispersal will be more vulnerable to future anthropogenic stressors.

Global Diversification: Unveiling the Benefits of International Asset Investments

The following paper discusses diversification benefits and the role of both domestic and international diversification in reducing risk and increasing growth. It transitions into describing asset classes and their roles in building a diverse portfolio. It then discusses international securities and how global assets can mitigate risks associated with domestic markets. Lastly using data from the past 15 years, It shows examples of constructing diverse portfolios with international securities and their potential for growth and lower risk based on a variety of performance metrics.

Study on the Impact and Response of the Implementation of Property Tax and Estate Tax on the Worldwide Asset Allocation of Chinese High Net Worth Individuals in the Context of Global Tax Reform

This paper examines the impact of property tax and estate tax implementations on high-net-worth individuals in China, offering insights into effective asset allocation and tax planning strategies to achieve legal tax optimization. It explores global asset diversification, the establishment of offshore trusts, family offices, strategic immigration planning, and philanthropy as mechanisms to mitigate tax liabilities while ensuring wealth preservation and compliance with evolving tax regulations. This analysis aims to provide a comprehensive framework for navigating the complexities of wealth management in the face of significant fiscal policy changes.

Tropical Origin, Global Diversification, and Dispersal in the Pond Damselflies (Coenagrionoidea) Revealed by a New Molecular Phylogeny.

The processes responsible for the formation of Earth's most conspicuous diversity pattern, the latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG), remain unexplored for many clades in the Tree of Life. Here, we present a densely sampled and dated molecular phylogeny for the most speciose clade of damselflies worldwide (Odonata: Coenagrionoidea) and investigate the role of time, macroevolutionary processes, and biome-shift dynamics in shaping the LDG in this ancient insect superfamily. We used process-based biogeographic models to jointly infer ancestral ranges and speciation times and to characterize within-biome dispersal and biome-shift dynamics across the cosmopolitan distribution of Coenagrionoidea. We also investigated temporal and biome-dependent variation in diversification rates. Our results uncover a tropical origin of pond damselflies and featherlegs ~105 Ma, while highlighting the uncertainty of ancestral ranges within the tropics in deep time. Even though diversification rates have declined since the origin of this clade, global climate change and biome-shifts have slowly increased diversity in warm- and cold-temperate areas, where lineage turnover rates have been relatively higher. This study underscores the importance of biogeographic origin and time to diversify as important drivers of the LDG in pond damselflies and their relatives, while diversification dynamics have instead resulted in the formation of ephemeral species in temperate regions. Biome-shifts, although limited by tropical niche conservatism, have been the main factor reducing the steepness of the LDG in the last 30 Myr. With ongoing climate change and increasing northward range expansions of many damselfly taxa, the LDG may become less pronounced. Our results support recent calls to unify biogeographic and macroevolutionary approaches to improve our understanding of how latitudinal diversity gradients are formed and why they vary across time and among taxa.

The evolution of corporate parenting styles of multinational corporations under anticipated trajectories of development in global industries

Purpose This paper aims to present the impact of several likely trajectories of development for global industries, namely, re-shoring, regionalization, diversification and replication, recently identified by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, on the evolution of the corporate parenting styles (CPSs) of multinational corporations (MNCs). Design/methodology/approach This viewpoint presents a novel view of CPSs as a set of relationships between the corporate centers of MNCs and their subsidiaries, including domestic ones, identifies the most likely connections between anticipated trajectories of development in global industries and the evolution of CPSs of MNCs and outlines directions for further research. Findings The anticipated trajectories of the development of global industries may result in changes in prevailing CPSs and lead to the proliferation of previously less common parenting styles. Although many of the anticipated changes in CPSs may be pursued by corporate headquarters (CHQs), a combination of powerful subsidiaries putting bottom-up pressure on CHQs and powerful owners capable of imposing requirements on top management teams and generating top-down pressure may affect the CPSs used by corporations. Originality/value The authors connect possible trajectories of development for global industries with the evolution of CPSs of MNCs.

Agricultural enterprise economic security systems modelling

The research relevance was determined by the current conditions of economic instability and the growing influence of external factors on the economic activities of enterprises, understanding and effective management of economic security issues is becoming extremely important for ensuring the sustainability of agricultural enterprises. The study aimed to provide a comprehensive analysis of the economic security of an agricultural enterprise, focusing on identifying key aspects and their impact on the sustainability and viability of the enterprise. The study employed an analytical method, statistical method, functional method, system analysis method, deduction method, synthesis method and comparison method. This study focuses on the economic security of agricultural enterprises, considering the complex aspects of efficiency, risk protection and the ability to adapt to changes in the economic environment. The study defines economic security as a systematic approach to risk management and sustainability. Particular attention is devoted to responding to changes in the external environment, such as price fluctuations, climate anomalies and global market trends. Theoretical models, such as the risk system model, effective resource management, innovative development, and global competitiveness, which determine various aspects of economic security, were considered. The study focuses on the financial condition of the agricultural company Kernel, which proved to be dynamic and ambiguous in 2020-2023. The analysis includes factors such as the impact of geopolitical events and economic instability due to the war. The company implements strategies for global competitiveness, demonstrating flexibility, innovation, and diversification to ensure sustainability. Strategies are proposed to expand production diversification, improve risk management, and use innovative technologies to adapt to climate change. The practical application of this study lies in the possibility of using the results and recommendations developed on their basis to improve the economic security systems of agricultural enterprises

통일 이미지 인식변화 및 통일교육의 패러다임 전환 필요성

According to a comparative analysis of the recent unification consciousness survey conducted by four unification-related organizations, including the Seoul National University Institute for Unification and Peace, the majority of the people prefer inter-Korean unification, the second phase of the national community unification plan, rather than the rigid unification goal of one country and one system. According to the survey, many people expect and are concerned about excessive unification costs, confusion from social and cultural differences, and conflicts from political and economic system differences in order to reach a unified state, the ultimate goal of the “National Community Unification Plan.” In the rapidly changing era of global diversification, I don't think there's a need to stick to the image of a unified state as a single state system. Many people prefer the image of inter-Korean union-style unification, which meets nationalist demands, pacifist demands, and pragmatic needs but does not have to worry about differences in unification costs, cultural differences, politics, and ideology. Therefore, it is important to present the easiest and most feasible image of unification and to reach social consensus. To this end, unification education must also change its paradigm. Existing unification education has developed a negative perception of unification by calculating its advantages and disadvantages on the premise of a single state, that is, an ultimate unified state, and reinforcing its image. Now, it is suggested that the goal of unification education should be to compare the issue of unification costs, socio-economic, cultural, and institutional differences between the two Koreas, and actively promote and educate the benefits of unification on the premise of the image of unification in the inter-Korean union method of peace and coexistence.

Reshaping The Future Of Mice Tourism Post-Covid-19: Challenges And Opportunities

This paper explores the repercussions of COVID-19 on MICE (Meetings, Incentives, Conferences, and Exhibitions) tourism and outlines a path to revive and elevate its impact on the economy, particularly in developing countries. As a vital sector with a multibillion-dollar presence in India, the tourism industry holds substantial potential for global expansion and diversification. The focus is on promoting inbound tourism to uplift nations, especially those in the developmental stage. By gathering insights through primary research from travelers and travel company owners, the paper addresses the pandemic's impact on the tourism industry. The research delves into the perspectives of various demographic groups regarding their readiness to travel post-pandemic.
 The study assesses preferences concerning travel modes, duration of stay, and socio-economic factors influencing purchasing behavior. The ultimate goal is to provide valuable inputs to society for the recovery and development of the tourism industry, thereby contributing to economic growth and mitigating unemployment challenges.

Synergistic polyploidization and long‐distance dispersal enable the global diversification of yellowcress herbs

AbstractAimLong‐distance dispersal (LDD) plays an important role in shaping the distribution of global biodiversity. Polyploidy could favour invasion and thereby facilitate LDD. However, how and to what extent polyploidy interacts with LDD remain unclear. Here, we test the putative role of polyploidy in the global dispersal of a cosmopolitan genus Rorippa.LocationGlobal.Time PeriodLate Miocene to present.Major Taxa StudiedRorippa Scop., Brassicaceae.MethodsWe traced the biogeographical and speciation history for 17 diploids and 41 polyploids of Rorippa using variation from plastid genomes and multiple nuclear loci. The ploidy role in dispersal rate difference was demonstrated using trait‐dependent biogeographical modelling.ResultsLDD shaped the amphitropical disjunction of Rorippa, during which polyploids showed higher dispersal rates than those of diploids, with 5.6× increase under the best‐fitted model. Five diploids and 21 polyploids were identified as products of transoceanic speciation events. Polyploidy‐involved LDD was more common in terms of polyploidization following LDD than those preceding LDD.Main ConclusionsWe demonstrate that polyploidy would be not only a driver but also a responder of LDD in Rorippa, highlighting a synergistic relationship between them. Our results provide a framework to uncover the biogeographical consequences of polyploidization and the joint roles of polyploidy and LDD in shaping the distribution of biodiversity.

Diversity across organisational scale emerges through dispersal ability and speciation dynamics in tropical fish

BackgroundBiodiversity exists at different levels of organisation: e.g. genetic, individual, population, species, and community. These levels of organisation all exist within the same system, with diversity patterns emerging across organisational scales through several key processes. Despite this inherent interconnectivity, observational studies reveal that diversity patterns across levels are not consistent and the underlying mechanisms for variable continuity in diversity across levels remain elusive. To investigate these mechanisms, we apply a spatially explicit simulation model to simulate the global diversification of tropical reef fishes at both the population and species levels through emergent population-level processes.ResultsWe find significant relationships between the population and species levels of diversity which vary depending on both the measure of diversity and the spatial partitioning considered. In turn, these population-species relationships are driven by modelled biological trait parameters, especially the divergence threshold at which populations speciate.ConclusionsTo explain variation in multi-level diversity patterns, we propose a simple, yet novel, population-to-species diversity partitioning mechanism through speciation which disrupts continuous diversity patterns across organisational levels. We expect that in real-world systems this mechanism is driven by the molecular dynamics that determine genetic incompatibility, and therefore reproductive isolation between individuals. We put forward a framework in which the mechanisms underlying patterns of diversity across organisational levels are universal, and through this show how variable patterns of diversity can emerge through organisational scale.