Global Average Level Research Articles

Lung cancer deaths attributable to ambient PM(2.5) exposure in 2016 in China

Objective: To analyze the lung cancer deaths attributable to ambient PM(2.5) exposure in China in 2016. Methods: All data were from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 (GBD 2016). Multiple-source data, including satellite observation, ground measurement, chemical migration model simulation, etc., and the data integration model for air quality (DIMAQ) were used to estimate the grid-level exposure to ambient PM(2.5). Data from the vital registry and cancer registry were used to establish statistical model to estimate the lung cancer deaths by province, age and gender. The lung cancer deaths attributable to PM(2.5) were calculated based on the calculation of population attributable fraction (PAF). The GBD world population age structure was adopted to calculate age-standardized rates for comparison among provinces (including 31 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government, as well as Hong Kong and Macao special administrative regions, excluding Taiwan of China). Results: In 2016, the lung cancer deaths attributable to ambient PM(2.5) exposure in China were 14.56×10(4) (95% uncertainty interval (UI): 9.63×10(4)-19.55×10(4)), accounting for 24.66% (95%UI: 16.38%-33.12%) of total lung cancer deaths. The lung cancer death rate attributable to PM(2.5) increased with age, with the lowest among 25-29 age group (0.25/10(5), 95%UI: 0.17/10(5)-0.34/10(5)), the highest among ≥80 age group (90.70/10(5), 95%UI: 59.85/10(5)-122.20/10(5)). The lung cancer death rate attributable to PM(2.5) among males (14.84/10(5), 95%UI: 9.78/10(5)-19.93/10(5)) was higher than that in females (6.21/10(5), 95%UI: 4.07/10(5)-8.40/10(5)). The age-standardized death rates (ASDR) of lung cancer attributable to PM(2.5) among males and females in China were higher than the global average level. The attributable ASDR of lung cancer varied among provinces, highest in Shandong (13.51/10(5), 95%UI: 9.14/10(5)-18.20/10(5)) and lowest in Tibet (0.85/10(5), 95%UI: 0.44/10(5)-1.51/10(5)). Conclusion: In 2016, the lung cancer deaths attributable to ambient PM(2.5) exposure in China was heavy, and varied in different age groups, genders and provinces.

Analysis on the emission of tritium from Qinshan nuclear power base of china in recent ten years

The emissions of tritium in airborne and liquid effluent from Qinshan nuclear power base in the period from 2007 to 2016 are counted, and compared with the global average emission level. The results show that the tritium emissions from the Qinshan nuclear power base in the past ten years have met the Chinese national standard limits. Compared with the global average emission data and the US commercial pressurized water reactor nuclear power plant emission data, the tritium emissions of PWR units are at the same level. Emissions from heavy water reactors of the Qinshan nuclear power base are lower than global average emissions (about 10% of the global average) and lower than the Canadian average emission level.

Socio-economic drivers of pig production and their effects on achieving sustainable development goals in China

ABSTRACTUnderstanding changes in livestock production and their relationship with socio-economic and environmental impacts is important for exploring the pathways towards sustainable development goals (SDGs) of food systems. We used pig production in China as a case study to evaluate how socio-economic indicators influence pig production and nutrient losses using the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) and Gini index. The recent acceleration in pig production is driven by an increase in average consumption of pig products per capita and government policies that support new pig production systems. The relationship between the rapid growth of worldwide pig production and its environmental impacts can be described using the EKC. The turning point in the EKC, i.e. the average income at which environmental degradation starts to decrease, is estimated to be USD 15–35 000 per capita when the pig production density is greater than 5.0 head per hectare of arable land. China’s pig production has not yet reached the EKC turning point; however, given the uneven distribution of pig production systems and supply chains (feed and water) and the limited land availability for utilizing manure nutrients, the continued increasing demand for pork in China will inevitably result in continued environmental degradation. The EKC turning point should be reached earlier than the global average level, especially as environmental regulation has been reinforced since 2014. Future government policies and regulations that optimize geographical locations for sustainable pig production (i.e. better spatial planning) and support improved manure nutrient management at both regional and farm levels are required.

Natural Radioactivity Level of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K Radionuclides in Drinking Water of Residential Areas in Kermanshah Province, Iran using Gamma Spectroscopy

Introduction: Human has always been exposed to background ionizing radiation. Interaction between ionizing radiation and the biological system can lead to changes in cells or tissues inducing diseases, such as cancer. With this background in mind, this experimental study aimed to evaluate the specific activity of water radionuclides in Kermanshah province, western region of Iran. Material and Methods: The specific activities of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K radionuclides in drinking water were assessed by gamma-ray spectrometer with high-purity Germanium detector. The water samples were collected from different towns (14 sites) in Kermanshah province on winter and summer seasons. Results: The mean specific activity levels of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K radionuclides in Bq/l were 0.53±0.28, 1.07±0.43, and 7.17±5.37 in winter, respectively. In addition, during summer the mean specific activities of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K were 0.61±0.20, 0.76±0.36, and 5.67±3.7 Bq/l, respectively. Contributions of the consumed water samples to annual effective dose for these radionuclides in adults was calculated to be in the range of 0.0015-0.24 mSv/y with the mean of 0.15 mSv/y. Conclusion: Findings of the present study demonstrate that the radioactivity level in drinking water due to 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K radionuclides in Kermanshah province is lower than the guidance levels recommended by the World Health Organization report (WHO-2011). Moreover, the mean annual effective dose caused by these radionuclides in Kermanshah province is lower than the global average level (0.29 mSv/y) reported by United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR 2000).

Research on the Payment for the Government-Driven Program of Low Carbon Agriculture

Research on the Payment for the Government-Driven Program of Low Carbon Agriculture

Estimation of effective radiation dose for households living in rare earth mines in Nam Xe, Lai Chau province

According to the United Nations Scientific Council on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), the global average dose level for the community is 2.4mSv/year. People living in the areas with high levels of radiation will cause adverse effects on their health. There are two main components that cause the dose of radiation, mainly due to the inhalation of radon and the extra dose of gamma radiation. The paper presents the results of assessment of natural effective radiation doses on the basis of the projected outpatient dosimetry in 70 households living in Mau and Mo village of Nam Xe, Phong Tho distrist, Lai Chau province.

Анализ терциаризации как структурно-экономической характеристики становления постиндустриального общества

The article examines conceptually and empirically tertiarisation as structural and economic characteristics of the transformation of modern society into a post-industrial. The authors substantiate the need for consistent fullfledged passage of the national socio-economic system of stages of civilizational development, based on which the author's definition of tertiaryization is given. A comparative cross-country quantitative analysis of the service sector in national economies makes it possible of strengthening the structural shift in favor of this sector in the economies of a group of countries with an average income level. High income level of the population is but one of the conditions for the existence of a developed service sector, as is confirmed by the example of a number of oil exporting countries. Along with poverty, the reason for the slow expansion of the service sector in the underdeveloped countries is their insufficient technological development. Russia lagged behind the global average level in the share of tertiary sector as well as in the rates of its growth. On the one hand, this is an evidence of the growth potential of the whole economy created by tertiarization, while, on the other hand, it speaks for a necessity of ensuring a higher quality of this growth.
 Problems of service sector’s growth structure are becoming more relevant in the current circumstances. An increase in the quality together with the one in the rates of growth might be attained on the basis of an outpacing expansion of the share of services and progressive dynamics of labor productivity in the process of services creation. At the same time, this requires a large stock of human capital in the country, which substantiates a conclusion about presence of tertiarization in its true sense only in economically developed countries. A negative attitude towards tertiarization in less developed countries may be explained by the dominance of traditional services in the tertiary sector of their economies that have greatly lost a capacity for accelerating the overall economic growth by now. Consequently, countries, in which an extended reproduction of human capital is implemented according to the needs for modernization of the industrial apparatus in the economy, benefit from tertiarization in the first place.

Insuring property under climate change

Climate change will increasingly create severe risks for New Zealand’s coastal housing stock. Even a small amount of sea level rise will substantially exacerbate the costs of flooding and storm surges (Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, 2015). Under the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) three mitigation scenarios, global average sea levels are likely to rise by between 28cm and 73cm by 2100 (above the 1986–2005 average). Under the IPCC’s high emissions scenario the sea level is likely to rise by between 52cm and 98cm by 2100 (IPCC, 2013). Only collapse of parts of the Antarctic ice sheet, if triggered, could cause the sea level to rise substantially above these ranges. Some regions in New Zealand (including the main urban centres) have high enough quality geographic data to infer the number of homes at risk. In those regions, there are over 43,000 homes within 1.5m of the present average spring high tide and over 8,000 within 50cm.

Water regime-nitrogen fertilizer incorporation interaction: Field study on methane and nitrous oxide emissions from a rice agroecosystem in Harbin, China

Water regime and nitrogen (N) fertilizer are two important factors impacting greenhouse gases (GHG) emission from paddy field, whereas their effects have not been well studied in cold region. In this study, we conducted a two-year field experiment to study the impacts of water regime and N fertilizer on rice yields and GHG emissions in Harbin, China, a cold region located in high latitudes. Our results showed that intermittent irrigation significantly decreased methane (CH4) emission compared with continuous flooding, however, the decrement was far lower than the global average level. The N2O emissions were very small when flooded but peaked at the beginning of the disappearance of floodwater. The N fertilizer treatments increased CH4 emissions at low level (75kgN/ha). But both CH4 and N2O emissions were uninfluenced at the levels of 150kgN/ha and 225kgN/ha. Rice yields increased under intermittent irrigation and were highest at the level of 150kgN/ha. From our results, we recommended that the intermittent irrigation and 150kgN/ha as the ideal water regime-nitrogen fertilizer incorporation for this area to achieve low GHG emissions without impacting rice yields.

Role identification of NH3 in atmospheric secondary new particle formation in haze occurrence of China

Haze pollution in China, dominated by the aerosol particulate matters smaller than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) has raised much concern over the past decade. PM2.5 is principally derived from secondary new particulate formation (NPF) with main precursors SO2, NO2, NH3 and organic compounds (OC), where NH3 is the only alkaline inorganic gas. However, due to the lack understanding of NH3's role in NPF, few attention has been paid to NH3, which hinders the haze mitigation in China. In this work, the role of NH3 in NPF is investigated theoretically with a new kinetic model. Combining the oxidation of SO2/NO2 in SO2/NO2/NH3/H2O/air system and the aggregation of clusters in H2SO4/HNO3/NH3/OC system, this model has been established based on gas-kinetic theory, and tested upon uncertainty analysis with Monte Carlo method. The results of NPF calculations at the atmospheric concentration of each precursor show that NH3 is able to enhance NPF indirectly by facilitating conversions of SO2 and NO2, and directly by promoting aggregations of H2SO4, HNO3, NH3 and OC. The major effect of NH3 on NPF is found to be the enhancement of conversion fractions for SO2 and NO2 during oxidation processes. In addition, the promotion in contribution of HNO3 to NPF due to NH3 has been particularly observed. Therefore, controlling the emission of NH3 strictly as current restrictions on SO2 and NOx is reasonable to mitigating the haze pollution in China which has much higher atmospheric NH3 concentration over the global average level.

Pollution by oestrogenic endocrine disruptors and β-sitosterol in a south-western European river (Mira, Portugal).

The Mira River is a Portuguese water body widely known for its wilderness and is advertised as one of the less polluted European rivers. On this presumption, the levels of endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) in Mira waters were never measured. However, because environmentalists have claimed that the Mira could be moderately polluted, a range of 17 EDCs were measured not only at the estuary but also along the river. The targeted EDCs included natural and pharmaceutical oestrogens (17β-oestradiol, oestrone and 17α-ethynylestradiol), industrial/household pollutants (octylphenols, nonylphenols and their monoethoxylates and diethoxylates and bisphenol A), phytoestrogens (formononetin, biochanin A, daidzein, genistein) and the phytosterol sitosterol (SITO). For this propose, waters from six sampling sites were taken every 2months, over a 1-year period (2011), and analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Unexpectedly high levels of oestrogens and of industrial/household pollutants were measured at all sampling sites, including those located inside natural protected areas. Indeed, the annual average sum of EDCs was ≈57ng/L for oestrogens and ≈1.3μg/L for industrial/household chemicals. In contrast, the global average levels of phytoestrogens (≈140ng/L) and of SITO (≈295ng/L) were lower than those reported worldwide. The EDC concentrations were normalised for ethynylestradiol equivalents (EE2eq). In view of these, the oestrogenic load of the Mira River attained ≈47ng/L EE2eq. In addition, phosphates were above legal limits at both spring and summer (>1mg/L). Overall, data show EDCs at toxicant relevant levels in the Mira and stress the need to monitor rivers that are allegedly less polluted.

China’s Low-Carbon Urbanization Progress and Pathway

Low-carbon urbanization is the integration of urbanization and low carbonization. It is the low-carbon transformation of current urban areas, the new trend of developing model of urban and rural areas, which includes the low-carbon transition in production, living style, and ecological spaces, the low-carbon reform in economy, society, structure, and the developing model, as well as changing urban areas from high-carbon style to low-carbon style. The urbanization rate of China is almost the same with global average level, and is expected to reach 80% in 2050. Currently, urbanization replaces industrialization, becoming an important force influencing socio-economic development, climate and ecological environment changes, international relations, and political patterns. With a 2[Formula: see text]C rise in temperature, human beings have to face a series of risks brought by climate change. China’s large-scale urbanization is of great influence on others. In this context, it is necessary to take a scientific cognition of China’s urbanization process, clarifying urbanization developing pathway, turning carbon constraints into carbon bonus, avoiding high-carbon lock, and then to take opportunities in promoting economic structure under “new normal” conditions, accelerating the upgrade from urban civilization to ecological civilization, and to reach both 100-year goal and low-carbon developing goal, leading sustainable development globally.

A Sustainability Assessment Framework For Waterfront Communities

It is predicted that the global phenomena of Climate change will have far reaching effects and implications on different local urban systems. For incidence, global average sea levels are expected to rise between 7 and 36 cm by the 2050s, and between 9 and 69 cm by the 2080s. Waterfront communities are the first to be affected by such impacts putting them at high risk. Planning tools are needed to assist these communities and increase their adaptive and learning capacities in the face of diverse challenges to their urban sub-systems. The research investigates a number of sustainability frameworks and assessment rating systems for neighbourhoods and communities. It investigates the sustainable evaluation criteria carried out by three assessment rating systems. First is the LEED (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design, USA), the second is BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method, UK), and the third is the Estidama PEARL rating system (UAE).Examples of waterfront communities which applied the previous rating systemsare analyzed in order to determine the applicability and relevance of these systems to waterfront communities in particular. The research concludes with a proposed framework of indicators for waterfront communities. The similarities and differences between the different rating systems and featured indicators specific to waterfront planning applied in the analyzed examples, yet absent in the three rating systems, have informed the selection of indicators in the proposed assessment framework. The proposed framework could be an effective tool for the planning and development of a waterfront community in the MENA region. In order to validate the framework, theset of environmental and physical indicators were applied on the case study of Abu Qir waterfront, Alexandria, Egypt. Conclusions and recommendations are made that would enhance the resilience of this waterfront community and provide a comprehensive tool for its sustainable planning.

Atmospheric CO2 and its δ13C measurements from flask sampling at Lin'an regional background station in China

This study presents CO2 concentrations of air flask samples obtained at a regional background station Lin'an (LAN) in China from January 2009 to December 2013, as well as their stable isotope ratios (δ13C) from January 2011 to December 2013. Background data is selected to represent background characteristics of atmospheric CO2 and δ13C over Yangzte River Delta. The annual mean background CO2 concentrations vary from 395.0 ppm in 2009 to 407.6 ppm in 2013, with a growth rate of 2.8 ± 0.1 ppm yr−1 over the study period, which is higher than the global average level. The annual mean values of δ13C vary from −8.55‰ in 2011 to −8.73‰ in 2013, with a growth rate of −0.029 ± 0.010‰ yr−1. Seasonal cycles of CO2 concentrations and δ13C are observed to be obvious at LAN. The minimum and maximum values of mean seasonal CO2 cycle appear in August and January, respectively, with the peak-to-peak amplitude of 19.4 ppm. The sign of δ13C seasonal cycle is opposite to that of CO2, and the peak-to-peak amplitude is 0.85‰. The isotopic signature of CO2 sources/sinks (δs) is also discussed in this paper. The estimated δs values for heating season (December–February) is −25.4‰ and for vegetative season is −21.3‰ (March–November) suggest the significant impact of fossil fuel combustions during winter heating season and biological activities during vegetative season.

Mental models of sea-level change: A mixed methods analysis on the Severn Estuary, UK

Global average sea levels are expected to rise by up to a metre by the end of the century. This long-term rise will combine with shorter-term changes in sea level (e.g. high tides, storm surges) to increase risks of flooding and erosion in vulnerable coastal areas. As communities become increasingly exposed to these risks, understanding their beliefs and responses becomes more important. While studies have explored public responses to climate change, less research has focused on perceptions of the specific risks associated with sea-level change. This paper presents the results of a mental models study that addressed this knowledge gap by exploring expert and public perceptions of sea-level change on the Severn Estuary, a threatened coastal environment in the southwest of the United Kingdom. A model was developed from the literature and expert interviews (N=11), and compared with public perceptions elicited via interviews (N=20) and a quantitative survey (N=359). Whilst we find a high degree of consistency between expert and public understandings, there are important differences that have implications for how sea level risks are interpreted and for what are perceived as appropriate mitigation and adaptation practices. We also find a number of potential barriers to engaging with the issue: individuals express low concern about sea-level change in relation to other matters; they feel detached from the issue, seeing it as something that will happen in future to other people; and many perceive that neither the causes of nor responses to sea-level change are their responsibility. We point to areas upon which future risk communications should therefore concentrate.

Quantifying carbon input for targeted soil organic carbon sequestration in China’s croplands

Increasing the soil organic carbon (SOC) pool in croplands can not only promote crop production but also mitigate climate change. The objective of this work was to quantify the needed C input rates for both maintaining China’s cropland SOC and improving it to global average level. By using a biogeophysical model (Agro-C), we performed simulations with a high spatial resolution (10 × 10 km) across China’s croplands to quantify the C input rate under given scenarios. The model simulations showed that an average C input of 2.1 Mg C ha−1 year−1 is required to stop soil C loss and that SOC density could approach the global mean of 55 Mg C ha−1 by 2050 when 5.1 Mg C ha−1 year−1 is incorporated into the soils. The quantified C inputs showed a large spatial disparity, depending on the existing SOC level, mean annual temperature and precipitation. The existing SOC level in Heilongjiang Province, where the cropland area accounts for 9.2 % of the national total, is much higher but the current C input is much lower than it is elsewhere. Increasing the organic C input should be given priority in this province.

More growth? An unfeasible option to overcome critical energy constraints and climate change

Growing scientific evidence shows that world energy resources are entering a period shaped by the depletion of high-quality fuels, whilst the decline of the easy-to-extract oil is a widely recognized ongoing phenomenon. The end of the era of cheap and abundant energy flows brings the issue of economic growth into question, stimulating research for alternatives as the de-growth proposal. The present paper applies the system dynamic global model WoLiM that allows economic, energy and climate dynamics to be analyzed in an integrated way. The results show that, if the growth paradigm is maintained, the decrease in fossil fuel extraction can only be partially compensated by renewable energies, alternative policies and efficiency improvements, very likely causing systemic energy shortage in the next decades. If a massive transition to coal would be promoted to try to compensate the decline of oil and gas and maintain economic growth, the climate would be then very deeply disturbed. The results suggest that growth and globalization scenarios are, not only undesirable from the environmental point of view, but also not feasible. Furthermore, regionalization scenarios without abandoning the current growth GDP focus would set the grounds for a pessimistic panorama from the point of view of peace, democracy and equity. In this sense, an organized material de-growth in the North followed by a steady state shows up as a valid framework to achieve global future human welfare and sustainability. The exercise qualitatively illustrates the magnitude of the challenge: the most industrialized countries should reduce, on average, their per capita primary energy use rate at least four times and decrease their per capita GDP to roughly present global average levels. Differently from the current dominant perceptions, these consumption reductions might actually be welfare enhancing. However, the attainment of these targets would require deep structural changes in the socioeconomic systems in combination with a radical shift in geopolitical relationships.

Genuine Savings as an Indicator for “Weak” Sustainability: Critical Survey and Possible Ways forward in Practical Measuring

Published by the World Bank (as “Adjusted Net Savings”) for around 160 countries, Genuine Savings (GS) presents the most respected but also the most debated indicator for “weak” sustainability. It originates from the so-called “Hartwick rule” for the re-investment of rents from the depletion of natural in reproducible forms of capital. Coming from the theoretical reasoning behind GS, this paper discusses possible extensions either not yet discussed or underrepresented in current research. Mainly, I suggest a discussion of additional items that could be included in GS and show that both the global average and individual country levels of GS would change immensely by including these recommendations.

Time trends of cardiovascular disease risk factors in China (LB463)

Fueled by rapid urbanization and changes in dietary and lifestyle choices, cardiovascular and other chronic diseases have emerged as a critical public health issue in China. To estimate the time trends of cardiovascular disease risk factors in China, we conducted a systematic review of the national representative studies of cardiovascular disease risk factors in China. The results indicated that the prevalence of hypertension in 2010 reached 33.5% (an estimated 330 million hypertensive patients), and the awareness and control rates were extremely low. Type 2 diabetes is an increasing epidemic in China with more than 100 million people affected. Although the Chinese population has a lower BMI than the global average level, abdominal obesity has become especially common in Chinese adults. Despite tobacco control efforts, the prevalence of smoking in China remains at a high level and domestic production of cigarettes continues to rise. Meanwhile, work and transportation‐related physical activity levels have declined sharply. In conclusion, in parallel with unprecedented pace of urbanization, China has experienced escalating epidemics of obesity and chronic diseases over the past decades, which not only affects physical health and quality of life, but also has serious economic and social consequences.

Management of stoma among colorectal cancer patients in a surgical ward: a best practice implementation project

Executive summary Background The incidence and mortality of colorectal cancer are higher in China than those of global average levels. Approximately one quarter of patients undergoing surgery for colorectal cancer will require a temporary or permanent stoma. The perioperative care of stoma can reduce discomfort and maximize the patient’s self-care competence. Objectives The aim of this project was to implement the best available evidence of stoma management into practice and to improve the self-care of patients with a stoma. Methods We conducted an evidence utilization project, including a baseline audit, feedback and a follow-up cycle. Six criteria were audited in the colorectal surgery ward of Fudan University, Shanghai Cancer Center. Twenty-four nurses as well as 61 patients and their caregivers were involved. The Joanna Briggs Institute’s Practical Application of Clinical Evidence System (PACES) program and its Getting Research Into Practice (GRIP) module were used to examine compliance with the criteria derived from best practice before and after the implementation of best practice. Results The compliance rates of daily stoma assessment, stoma care education, appliance selection, self-care ability assessment and discharge planning achieved 100%. However, the lowest compliance rate was for preoperative education (58%). There were improvements in compliance rates for five criteria from 21% to 100%, except for stoma-care education which was already 100% implemented. Conclusions The project has made a significant improvement in establishing evidence-based practice for stoma management in the colorectal surgery ward. Further challenges will be in developing strategies to sustain best practice.