GIS Approach Research Articles

Modeling Potential production and yield gap of potato using modelling and GIS approaches

Understanding yield potential (Yp) and yield gap (Yg) in current intensive potato (solanum tuberosum L.) production is essential to meet future food demand with the limited resources. Evaluating yield gap is a strong approach to estimate maximum production potential when all factors are in the best condition. A complete estimation of yield gap and potential yield across all major potato producing regions in Iran is lacking. The global yield gap atlas (GYGA) protocol was used to estimate potential yield of potato in Iran. This protocol is based on the climatic zones (CZs) and the reference weather stations (RWS) buffer zones, soil types in each buffer zone. Thirty-five RWS buffer zones in potato producing regions were selected, and total potato area in the RWS buffer zones covered 83% of the whole potato harvest area. According to the results, the average Yp was 67.3 t ha–1 and actual yield (Ya) was 30 t ha–1. Therefore, the average tuber yield gap was 37.3 t ha–1. These results indicate that the Potato producers achieved 45% of the potential yield in Iran. Iranian farmers produced 5 million tons of potato from about 164,000 ha. If they can obtain only 80% of Yp (53.8 t ha–1), amount of potato production will be 8.8 million tones. As result, they can produce 5.2 million tons tuber yield of potato in 97,000 ha cultivation area. Thus, with closing yield gap and increasing potato production, it is possible to decrease potato lands.

Street mapping, object detection and traffic load assessment from SVIs and field data using YOLOv3, machine learning and GIS

Street View Imageries (SVIs) facilitates street mapping, extraction and examination of elements from human’s perspective to aid for navigation and better understanding the real time loads on streets. We have selected an unplanned, densely populated residential place with 5 to 6 floor buildings in Batla House, New Delhi where street-level mapping and object detection using Google Street View Application (GSVA) is of high significance. We mapped 82 streets, spanning 14.2 km, and published the videos on GSVA. The objects were detected and classified with an accuracy of 94.2% and 91.4% respectively by YOLOv3 predefined model through ARC-GIS API for Python from the series of images. Our analysis show satisfactory association of human (R2 = 0.77), motor bike (R2 = 0.45) and cars/auto rickshaw (R2 = 0.58) with street width during afternoon hour. The SVIs and real-time objects detection using ML, GIS and field-assisted data combinatorial approach is more feasible for streetscape in unplanned settlements.

Delineation of Coastal Regulation Zone of an Ecologically Sensitive Coastal Region in the Southern Indian Peninsula: A GIS Approach

The coastal ecosystems in India are facing a large array of natural and anthropogenic stresses due to climate change and economic developments. Therefore, proper management of these sensitive regions towards a holistic sustainable development is the need of the hour. Coastal regulation zones (CRZ) are created for regulation of activities in the coastal area for the protection of coastal and sea resources under 1986 Environment Protection Act, of India. This research was carried out along the Eastern Ramanathapuram coast of Tamil Nadu in the Indian Peninsula to delineate the coastal regulation zone using GIS. To understand and categorize the most sensitive coastal region. Our analysis further splits CRZ region into CRZ-I A, CRZI B, CRZ II, III-A, and CRZ III B, CRZ-IV B in compliance with Regulation 2019. Here, aligned with the CRZ compliance, 500m buffer area is taken from HTL (High Tide Level) towards the landward side in the ecosensitive coastline, and 100 m buffer area is taken along creeks and estuaries, as per the guidelines of CRZ Notification, 2019. The output is integrated with land use/land cover map of 2020 and population density to analyseand categorize various coastal zones in the study area.

Agricultural Suitability and Static Modelling: A GIS Approach

Agriculture with its allied sector is largest livelihood providing sector in India. It also contributes to the employment. 54.6 % of the workforce is involved in the agricultural sector alone. Ramganjmandi is a Tehsil situated in the south-eastern part of Rajasthan. The region undergoes limestone, popularly known as Kota stone mining. The region faces serious threat in terms of air soil, noise, and water pollution. Irrigated supply when impacted by the economic activity induce toxic chemicals in the food chain. The objective of the paper is to assess the irrigational suitability of water in Ramganjmandi tehsil of Kota in Rajasthan. The suitability will be assessed using sodium absorption ratio SAR, Sodium percent, Kelley’s ratio KR and Electrical Conductivity. The static modelling of these irrigational parameters is executed in Arc GIS using Interpolation through inverse distance weightage method. The value of Electrical conductivity lies between 367 μS to 939μS, SAR values lies between 0.98 to 11.16, sodium percent values lie between 11.43 to 60.14% and Kelley’s index values lie between 0.12 to 1.35.

Flood risk mapping and urban infrastructural susceptibility assessment using a GIS and analytic hierarchical raster fusion approach in the Ona River Basin, Nigeria

The topical climate change effect, along with several uncontrolled anthropogenic activities, has resulted in a global flood disaster that continues to wreak havoc on human ecology. The hydraulic and integrated modelling approaches appear to stand out in the sequence of flood risk models that have been presented because of their predictive accuracy. The former has a high probability of under predicting and the latter has a high tendency to over-predict. This study proposed a modelling approach that combines the hydraulic and integrated models using analytical hierarchical raster fusion techniques to strengthen the weaknesses of the individual models. This study seeks to undertake a flood inundation model, a runoff model, and raster fusion models using GIS and HEC-RAS rain-on-grid methods to map flood risk and perform a flood infrastructural susceptibility assessment in the Ona river basin of Ibadan city. The flood risk model's main findings revealed that 48.2% of the Ona river basin is exposed from moderate to very high flood risk. It was revealed that rainfall introduces excess stormwater into the basin, but the stream channels associated with physical features are the major influencing factors. Also vulnerable to very high flood magnitudes include places with high building, road and rail network density, and locations with a high density of damaged bridges and culverts. This study shows that the robust modelling approach presented here yielded insightful results that can be used by relevant authorities to implement flood management models and define priorities for flood catastrophe risk planning, early warning, and preparedness.

‘Mapping the Most Influential Art Districts in Shanghai (1912-1948) through Clustering Analysis’

This research proposes a new method to map and classify art clusters, combining multiple dimensions of spatial and social network analyses. This method innovatively blends a historic GIS approach, spatial statistics and qualitative data analysis, and experiments with the Republican-period of Shanghai art world, known as the golden age of art and culture in Shanghai. The outcome is the identification of 11 major art clusters in eight selected years with unique characteristics. It also uncovers a partially correlated yet dialectic relationship between social network dynamics and cluster transformation in Shanghai. These findings fill a knowledge gap in Chinese art history.

Diversity and Potential Carbon Services of In-Situ Conservation Reserve in Gunung Sepuluh Timur Forest at Balikpapan, East Kalimantan

Establishing an in-situ conservation reserve is one of the strategic approaches to conserving an ecosystem and protecting it from immediate threats, including deforestation and land-use conversion. Kalimantan is one of the islands in Indonesia that is currently threatened by deforestation. To protect East Kalimantan diversity, mainly in Balikpapan, an in-situ conservation reserve has been established in Gunung Sepuluh Timur (GST) forest. In contrast, the information on tree diversity and how the presence of tree community within the forest can benefit the ecosystem are still limited. This research aims to assess the potential benefits and carbon storage of the GST conservation forest. The assessment method applied tree, pole, and sapling surveys combined with forest cover analysis using GIS and NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) approaches. The GST contained 56 tree species, 25 pole species, and 16 sapling species. Diversity (H’) at tree stages was the highest (H’ = 0.759; 95%CI: 0.64-0.88) and H’ at sapling stages was the lowest (H’ = 0.719; 95%CI: 0.51-0.92). The carbon service potential of GST forest was 87.04 t C/ha on average. It was estimated that the economic benefits of GST in sequestering carbon based on the compliance market rate were equal to US$ 189,758/year.

Delineation of sensitive coastal zone of northern Ramanathapuram coast, Tamilnadu, India, using a GIS approach

This research aims to assess the sensitive coastal zones by analyzing the shoreline changes such as accretion and erosion in the eastern coastal part of Ramanathapuram District, Tamil Nadu, India. The study focused on Mandapam, Pirappanvalsai, Enmanamcondam, Nagachi, Terbogi, Athyuthu, Chitrakkottai, Pathengal, Attangarai, Alagankulam, and Devipattinam villages. Some of these areas are distinguished as highly sensitive ecological zone. The erosion of an area leads to irreplaceable disturbances to nature. Hence, erosion and accretion studies are top priorities when studying the coastal area. In addition to GIS technology, which has been widely used in the past 20 years, the End Point Rate (EPR) and Linear Regression Rate (LRR) analyses were conducted to better understand the shoreline changes. The stability of the coastal region was analyzed by observing the slope variations of the beach during the profile survey. In the study, we analyzed that the Quaternary deposits of sand are the dominant geological feature of the study area. Coral reefs and salt pans are highly distributed along the coastal stretch. The coast of Mandapam village has been detected as a highly sensitive region, with an average erosion rate of −3.1 m/yr and an average accretion rate of 1.22 m/yr, resulting in high erosion and low accretion. The coast is a steep coast with an average slope angle of 0.24°. This study provides insight into sustainable coastal zone management.

Assessment of agricultural land suitability using GIS and fuzzy analytical hierarchy process approach in Ranchi District, India

The land is a vital source of agriculture. Agricultural land is utilized for the purpose of cropping. Delineation of potential agricultural land is pertinent when population pressure incrementally increases and a competitive trade-off between different land uses. The present study is conducted to evaluate the agrarian land suitability in the Ranchi district (Plateau region in India) using fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (FAHP). A land suitability evaluation technique is designed, combining nineteen thematic layers from five categories: climatic parameters, topographic features, soil characteristics, euclidean distance, and land elements. All thematic layers were combined into a single layer using the FAHP model to create agricultural land suitability map in a GIS environment. Our analysis demonstrates that 11.17% of the total area (509700 ha) is highly suitable, while about 20.73% and 13.81% of the study area is moderately suitable and marginally suitable for agricultural activities. The study also reveals that approximately 54.29% of the lands are not suitable for agriculture. Our findings provide additional information, and local governments can use the land suitability map to manage and develop agricultural resources. The study contributes to the studies on agricultural suitability by bringing in multiple variables centring on the FAHP method, which can be replicated in studies on plateau regions across the globe.

A maximum entropy and GIS approach to predict potential habitat for northern bobwhites in the Black Belt prairie physiographic region of Alabama

Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) populations have sustained precipitous declines throughout their range. The North American Breeding Bird Survey for Alabama indicates a rate of decline of over 6% per year since 1966. Declining bobwhite populations have been associated with large-scale habitat loss and a reduction in habitat quality due to advances in ecological succession, intensive monoculture agriculture, and intensive timber management practices. Once a very diverse region, modern land-use practices throughout the Black Belt Prairie physiographic region have created a simplified landscape that have left few places where bobwhites can live and thrive. Despite extensive research on bobwhites, there is insufficient knowledge on the spatial distribution of bobwhite habitat on a regional scale, including the Black Belt Prairie physiographic region. Knowing the spatial distribution of suitable bobwhite habitat will allow conservation planners to prioritize efforts and direct limited resources to achieve conservation goals for the region. The goals of this study were to 1) evaluate the maximum entropy modeling approach for predicting northern bobwhite habitat in the Black Belt Prairie physiographic region, and 2) develop a northern bobwhite habitat suitability map for the Black Belt Prairie physiographic region. The results showed that deciduous 1.8 km (1.8 km is the dispersal distance of bobwhites) neighborhood was the most important habitat variable, followed by water 1.8 km neighborhood. Developed 1.8 km neighborhood was the most important anthropogenic variable, ranking third in overall importance. The resultant model denotes potential habitat in the region and forms the basis for using the maximum entropy and geographic information system approach to predict suitable habitat and prioritize areas for conservation.

Spatial analysis of soil physicochemical and hydraulic properties in the Libga irrigation scheme in northern Ghana using geostatistics and GIS approach

Spatial analysis of soil physicochemical and hydraulic properties in the Libga irrigation scheme in northern Ghana using geostatistics and GIS approach

Quantifying transportation infrastructure pressure on Southeast Asian World Heritage forests

Transportation infrastructure has expanded rapidly in Southeast Asian forests over the last 20 years, opening up remote areas to the degrading effects of internal forest fragmentation and human exploitation. Natural World Heritage sites (NWHS) can be a powerful policy instrument to safeguard tropical forest ecosystems (when adequately implemented and enforced, and communicated to all relevant stakeholders); however, despite this mechanism, transportation infrastructure pressure has been increasing in NWHS forests. Here we propose a novel GIS approach to assess spatial and temporal changes in transportation infrastructure pressure on NWHS in Southeast Asia using a Transportation Infrastructure Pressure Index (TIPI) and forest fragmentation analysis, underpinned by global open-source datasets. Mean pressure in Southeast Asian NWHS is lower than in their surrounding areas (15 km), suggesting that NWHS protection is preventing some deterioration. However, in the last 5 years, these sites have also come under increasing transportation infrastructure pressure (at a mean rate of 14.9% over the period 2014–2019 across 12 sites in Southeast Asia). Furthermore, increases in transportation pressure in NWHS surrounding areas are correlated with increases in transportation pressure inside NWHS. With transportation infrastructure projected to continue to expand globally, GIS-based analysis methods such as these could enhance existing NWHS monitoring efforts, providing early warning about pressures that may be contributing to forest degradation and biodiversity declines in NWHS.

Novel Combined Approach of GIS and Electrical Tomography to Identify Marsh/Lake at Kastrouli Late Mycenaean Settlement (Desfina, Greece)

The Kastrouli Late Bronze settlement in Phocis province, central Greece, has been proved to have been an important center in the periphery of the Mycenaean palaces. It was reused at least partially and was cultivated until the 20th century. The presence of a flat area off the Kastrouli hill and the seasonal flooding nowadays led to the present investigation, questioning the formation of an ancient lake or marsh/swamp. A methodological approach was applied combining the digital elevation model (DEM) and GIS of the wider and confined area, examining slopes between 0 and 5 degrees (0 and 8.75%), with electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) traverses of around 300 and 500 m, reaching a depth of 100 m. The ERT data were rapidly collected on profiles and provided a cross-sectional (2D) plot. It was found that, in the area, there is a basin with a length of 100 m and a depth of around 40–50 m. The sedimentation process over the millennia has filled the basin, with the upper 5–6 m surface layers of the area having a low resistivity. The presence of two natural sinkholes with apparent engineered hydraulic works is noted to conform to drainage and produce a habitable environment, protecting the cultivated land and avoiding a swamp associated with health issues.

Site Selection of Fire Station Based on GIS Approach for Baquba District Eastern Iraq

This study aims to nominate a suitable location for a new fire station in Baquba District Eastern Iraq. The suitability model was selected using GIS-based on five criteria layers including the roads, hospital, existing fire stations, population, and police stations. All the dataset was processed using ArcGIS 10. The criteria layers were standardized using fuzzy liner membership (FLM) and then combined to produce the final fire station suitability map using the fuzzy overlay method. The study area divided into three classes namely: unsuitable, low suitability, and high suitability according to the five criteria applied. The study shows the efficiency of the fuzzy overlay method for multi-criteria spatial modeling based on the fuzzy logic principle. The Fuzzy overlay defines the membership using the liner function on each of the input rasters.

Added Value of Local Sheep Breeds in Alpine Agroecosystems

This study is part of a project (Sheep Al.L. Chain, RDP Veneto Region) aiming to improve the competitiveness of local sheep breed farms through valorization of their links with mountain agroecosystems. We considered two local sheep breeds of the eastern Italian Alps, “Alpagota” and “Lamon”, which have a population of 400 and 3000 heads, respectively, and are used to produce lambs for typical products. A total of 35 farms (17 for Alpagota, with a total of 1652 heads; 18 for Lamon, with a total of 337 heads) were surveyed to collect data on farm organization, flock structure and management (farm questionnaire), land use management (GIS approach), and value chain organization (participatory processes). The link between the two local sheep breeds and mountain agroecosystems is very strong: land use is characterized by a large number of small patches of grasslands in marginal areas. Moving from the results of this study, a set of strategies aiming at improving the competitiveness of these systems have been proposed. Communication to the consumers and to the relevant stakeholders of the added value of local sheep breeds in marginal mountain agroecosystems can contribute to favor the resilience of small ruminant farms and the conservation of Alpine sheep breeds.

Beyond the Backyard: GIS Analysis of Public Green Space Accessibility in Australian Metropolitan Areas

During times of stress and social pressure, urban green space provides social, cultural, and economic resources that help individuals and communities cope. Green space accessibility is, therefore, an important indicator related to people’s health and welfare. However, green space accessibility is not even throughout urban areas, with some areas better served with green space than others. Green space patterning is, therefore, a major environmental justice challenge. This research uses GIS approaches to analyze and understand urban green space access of urban communities in the Australian metropolitan areas of Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, and Brisbane. We calculate indicators to describe green space access in relation to different green space patterns within different metropolitan zones, including the inner urban, suburban, and peri urban. We use the best available open data from the Australian census of 2017 to calculate green space accessibility. Our results describe the relationship between population density and green space distribution and patterning in the four metropolitan areas. We find that even cities which are generally thought of as liveable have considerable environmental justice challenges and inequity and must improve green space access to address environmental inequity. We also find that a range type of measures can be used to better understand green space accessibility. Accessibility varies greatly both within metropolitan areas and also from city to city. Through improving our understanding of the green space accessibility characteristics of Australian metropolitan areas, the result of this study supports the future planning of more just and equal green cities.

“Sudbury Breccia” and “Huronian Breccia”: spatial, sedimentological, and structural evidence for separate distinct breccia-forming events

Rounded argillite clasts within the lower Gowganda Formation of the Huronian Supergroup near Whitefish Falls, Ontario, have been historically mapped as Sudbury Breccia, implying that their formation was initiated by the Sudbury meteorite impact event. Alternative genetic models proposed to explain the breccia at Whitefish Falls include formation through intrusion of diabase into wet sediment accompanied by soft-sediment deformation events. Outcrops in the Whitefish Falls area contain clear evidence for early post-depositional fracturing: flow of argillites into brittle fractured sandstones. Linking these geological processes suggests that the formation of the breccia at Whitefish Falls was generated by faulting of the Huronian sedimentary basin during the sedimentation of the Gowganda argillites. Using a GIS approach to compare the distribution of known breccia bodies with mapped lithology and structure, it is apparent that the term Sudbury Breccia has been applied to two types of breccias. First, true Sudbury Breccia, which is characterised by rounded heterogeneous clasts in an aphanitic matrix, is only found in proximity to the Sudbury Impact crater. The distribution of the second, primarily sediment derived, type of breccia, as seen at Whitefish Falls, is strongly associated with mapped faults and regional-scale basement discontinuities, as defined by gravity and magnetic data. Since this type of breccia is present throughout the entire Huronian sedimentary sequence, the term “Huronian Breccia” is more appropriate. This breccia is not the result of a single geological event but rather episodes of fault activity, as the geometry of the Huronian basin evolved over time.

IDENTIFICATION OF LANDSCAPES OF NATIONAL IMPORTANCE USING GIS

INTRODUCTION
 One of the aims of recognising landscapes of national importance is to encourage public authorities to adopt policies and measures at the local, regional and national level for protecting, managing and planning landscapes throughout national states. It covers unique and outstanding landscapes among the ordinary ones, that not only determine the quality of people’s living environment but also contribute to national identity. Different approaches have been used so far internationally in identifying landscapes of national importance, assessing their characteristics, structure and landscape elements, recognising that both – quantitative assessment and expert judgement should be involved for this task. Within this study, the focus is on the quantitative part of the study, using GIS and revealing the traceable sequence of steps and criteria used.
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 GIS approach was used to determine landscape areas of national importance, using a hexagon grid - (each in an area of 100 ha, 68,407 hexagons), which covers the territory of Latvia. The aggregation of spatial data in regular grids provides an opportunity to normalise different types of spatial data, as well as to address the use of irregularly shaped polygons (e.g., in the case of politically defined boundaries). The hexagon network, due to the shape, forms continuous coverage of the area, while at the same time the hexagon has a similar shape to a circle, which accordingly provides advantages in terms of defining and representing different spatial relationships. Territories of the most valuable landscapes of national significance are spatially separated, assigning values to hexagons in accordance with the landscape values in their territory. Each hexagon is assigned a value according to whether it overlaps with an area that meets one or more of the criteria for the most valuable landscapes of national importance. In the case of larger, continuous area units, the coincidence of areas is determined by the hexagon centroid, but in the case of smaller, individual area units (also point units), the intersect function is used. The criteria for the research part to be quantified include five thematic sections: natural heritage, cultural heritage and historical evidence, identity and community involvement, uniqueness and landscape quality, which can be quantified from the infrastructure created to highlight the visual aspects and aesthetics of landscape.
 RESULTS
 The part of the quantitative analysis data used to determine the value of the landscape by GIS has been realised in several sequent stages. First, after analysing the main criteria for the identification of landscapes of national importance from existing literature and research thematic areas, they were split into concrete criteria: 8 for natural heritage, 5 for cultural heritage and historical evidence, 6 for identity and community involvement, 4 for uniqueness and 1 for landscape quality. Each of the criteria was given an appropriate weight of 0.5 to 1.5 points (using 0.25 points as a step). Several of the criteria are exclusive and do not overlap; the total amount for most outstanding landscapes would be 12 points. This was followed by a phase of structuring and categorising large amounts of data to allow GIS analysis to be performed. Minor adjustments were made to the weights assigned to the criteria in the methodology during the analysis. Each area of 100 ha, 68,407 hexagons got weighted value, and those territories where the concentration of the highest values were identified, were reconsidered during the next stage as a landscape with national importance. As there were more than 100 such places of concentration, discussion on joint territories having less valuable hexagons in-between has been carried out.
 DISCUSSION
 A landscape character assessment technique that is scientifically sound, region-specific and stakeholder orientated, designed to describe landscape character, has been used often recently. It can be applied at a range of scales and it may also integrate landscape character analysis with biodiversity assessments, the analysis of historical character, and socio-economic functions such as recreation etc. Even so it is primarily concerned with documenting landscape character rather than assigning quality or values, implying a distinction between characterisation and judgement; identifying landscapes with national importance still involves the assessment and evaluation process. This is debated widely as the main concern is to carry out ordinary landscape quality in places where people live, recognising that only a limited number of societies will benefit from daily encounters of unique landscapes. However, the GIS method used and criteria applied provide transparent objectivity in the characterisation of landscape uniqueness, and even if it’s relatively easy to recognise them by perception, having a society consensus, spatial aspects and the identification of borders for such landscapes would be much more difficult without GIS.

Census-Based Variables Are Informative about Subjective Neighborhood Relations, but Only When Adjusted for Residents’ Neighborhood Conceptions

Subjective neighborhood perceptions (such as attachment or satisfaction) have been linked to demographic factors and self-reported living conditions. There has been less success to include census-based variables. One explanation is the frequent a priori application of rigid neighborhood definitions. We assessed subjective neighborhood relations, demographic information, and self-defined neighborhoods via a postcard-based, participatory GIS approach. We linked several census-based variables (e.g., the proportion of seniors or the average members per household) to four different neighborhood definitions. We found that census-based variables allowed no prediction of neighborhood relations when adjusted to statistical districts, and a limited prediction when adjusted to two different-sized buffers. We found the best prediction of neighborhood relations through census-based variables when they were adjusted to self-defined neighborhoods. Larger households, fewer households per building, and a higher proportion of seniors benefited neighborhood relations. Our findings underline the importance of adjusting the definition of ‘neighborhood’ to that of the residents when studying neighborhood attachment or sense of community.

Relationship between Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Concentration and Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) throughout Peninsular Malaysia

Abstract A particular matter (PM2.5) is a small particle in the air that reduces visibility and causes air to fade when raised. It is one of the parameters that contribute to air pollution. There are a few causes of air pollution. It can appear in solid and liquid particles and certain gases that are suspended in the air. Consequently, pollution can significantly and negatively impact human health. This study aimed to explore the relationship between concentrations of PM2.5 and aerosol optical depth (AOD) throughout Peninsular Malaysia using the GIS approach. The tabular data of PM2.5 was acquired from the Department of Environment and overlaid with the MODIS satellite image. A correlation test was performed using QGIS software using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) technique. Then, by using the Air Pollution Index data and the value of Aerosol Optical Depth, this study can identify the values that influence the pollutants by studying the relationship between PM2.5 and AOD using MODIS satellite images. The linear regression of PM2.5 concentration with the MODIS AOD has shown significant differences. This study aligns with the eleven Sustainable Development Goals which are focused on sustainable cities and communities, to reduce the adverse environmental impact of cities per capita, especially the air quality such as fine particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) in cities.