Biological Weapons Research Articles

Epidemic Diseases, Biological Weapons, and the Relationship of Religion with COVID-19

As a result of the spread of the COVID-19 virus all over the world, starting from China in 2019, curiosity about the course of the epidemics that took place in history has increased. Many epidemics have occurred in history, and many different precautions have been taken against these diseases. Islam is a religion based on hygiene and cleanliness, both physically and spiritually. In the history of Islam, Hz. Prophet has many advice about the precautions to be taken against epidemics. In addition to epidemics in the world, another factor that affects people both physiologically and psychologically and is released in a controlled manner is the microorganisms used as biological weapons. These weapons cause more chaos and terror than epidemics. Moreover, even small amounts are enough to destroy millions of people. COVID-19 is the last pandemic in the world, and its effects are still ongoing. Although some people claim that this virus is a biological weapon programmed in the laboratory, genetic sequencing has proven it to be a natural virus.

Fluorescence Methods for the Detection of Bioaerosols in Their Civil and Military Applications

The article presents the history of the development and the current state of the apparatus for the detection of interferents and biological warfare simulants in the air with the laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) method. The LIF method is the most sensitive spectroscopic method and also enables the measurement of single particles of biological aerosols and their concentration in the air. The overview covers both the on-site measuring instruments and remote methods. The spectral characteristics of the biological agents, steady-state spectra, excitation-emission matrices, and their fluorescence lifetimes are presented. In addition to the literature, we also present our own detection systems for military applications.

Redefinition of War and the Weapons of Mass Destruction in the 21st Century

War needs science and advanced technology to evolve. Until the time of the technological revolution, the war did not have such a large-scale to cover the whole world. But nowadays, communication became a tool that determines the potential of expanding threats. Modern military forces can change an environment faster than ever, but in a decentralized area, the army is unnecessary to war. This article shows the concept of a new idea of decentralized war as a civil and hybrid warfare conducted in the countries in which human rights are repeatedly violated. As evidenced by recent studies, decentralized war uses new generation technology as a weapon of mass destruction based on globally available mass communication tools. Thus, the study concentrates on the issue of these weapons as not only nuclear weapons are likely to play a more significant role in the international security environment, and constraints on the proliferation and use of chemical and biological weapons seem to be inefficient. There will be greater scope for terrorism, though it is not possible to predict the frequency or severity of any future employment of the weapons of mass destruction. New forms of the weapons (beyond chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons) are likely to emerge. This is namely cyber weapons that is capable of inflicting a widespread disruption and generating high costs to deter large-scale cyber attacks. As a consequence of war redefinition, the article is also a trial of reconsidering the term of weapon of mass destruction, by explaining the role of cyber attacks, political fanaticism and hateful propaganda.

Immunosensors for Assay of Toxic Biological Warfare Agents.

An immunosensor for the assay of toxic biological warfare agents is a biosensor suitable for detecting hazardous substances such as aflatoxin, botulinum toxin, ricin, Shiga toxin, and others. The application of immunosensors is used in outdoor assays, point-of-care tests, as a spare method for more expensive devices, and even in the laboratory as a standard analytical method. Some immunosensors, such as automated flow-through analyzers or lateral flow tests, have been successfully commercialized as tools for toxins assay, but the research is ongoing. New devices are being developed, and the use of advanced materials and assay techniques make immunosensors highly competitive analytical devices in the field of toxic biological warfare agents assay. This review summarizes facts about current applications and new trends of immunosensors regarding recent papers in this area.

Technology Design 4.0 to Create Maritime Power

Technological developments and globalization affect the entire system of life. The state as a subject in international life must quickly follow technological developments. State Defense and Security is one of the objects that is always protected. Innovation is a verb that is always required to develop a national defense and security system. Before carrying out innovations, first look at the potential for technology-based security, such as the development of nuclear weapons, biological weapons or information and technology systems that have turned into a non-traditional war potential. Indonesia, one of the countries in the Asian region, needs to anticipate both regional and global opponents to be able to make plans and technological innovations in the future where technology is no longer a noun but a verb that plays a diplomatic role.

The Role of Molecular Biology for National Defense related to Bioterrorism and Biological Warfare Threat

The Role of Molecular Biology for National Defense related to Bioterrorism and Biological Warfare Threat

Systematic evaluation of membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles in neutralizing Clostridium perfringens ε-toxin

Clostridium perfringens ε-toxin (ETX) is the main toxin leading to enterotoxemia of sheep and goats and is classified as a potential biological weapon. In addition, no effective treatment drug is currently available in clinical practice for this toxin. We developed membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles (MNPs) with different membrane origins to neutralize ETX and protect the host from fatal ETX intoxication. We evaluated the safety and therapeutic efficacy of these MNPs in vitro and in vivo. Compared with membranes from karyocytes, such as Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells and mouse neuroblastoma N2a cells (N2a cells), membrane from erythrocytes, which do not induce any immune response, are superior in safety. The protective ability of MNPs was evaluated by intravenous injection and lung delivery. We demonstrate that nebulized inhalation is as safe as intravenous injection and that both modalities can effectively protect mice against ETX. In particular, pulmonary delivery of nanoparticles more effectively treated the challenge of inhaled toxins than intravenously injected nanoparticles. Moreover, MNPs can alter the biological distribution of ETX among different organs in the body, and ETX was captured, neutralized and slowly delivered to the liver and spleen, where nanoparticles with ETX could be phagocytized and metabolized. This demonstrates how MNPs treat toxin infections in vivo. Finally, we injected the MNPs into mice in advance to find out whether MNPs can provide preventive protection, and the results showed that the long-cycle MNPs could provide at least a 3-day protection in mice. These findings demonstrate that MNPs provide safe and effective protection against ETX intoxication, provide new insights into membrane choices and delivery routes of nanoparticles, and new evidence of the ability of nanoparticles to provide preventive protection against infections.Graphical

The Environmental Degradation of Cement-Based Materials Due to Alkali-Silica Reaction: Case Studies

The environmental degradation of infrastructures is widely widespread. Every material or combination of it is subjected to a specific type of deterioration, which can occur in combination with other damaging effects. Structures are subjected to physical, chemical, mechanical and biological attacks. The monitoring, the diagnostic and the restoration are expensive processes that often can be mitigated by a correct material planning and design. Concrete structures are affected by freeze / thaw attack, acid and water leaching and sulphate deterioration. Every mechanism takes place at different rates depending upon the concentration of the aggressive pollutants and the environmental parameters, such as the humidity and the temperature. Alkali-silica reaction is known to happen between the alkali content of the cementitious binders and the amorphous quartz-rich stone aggregates. It usually takes a relatively long time to occur. In this work, cableway piles exposed to adverse atmospheric condition on a mountain as well as a support wall of a freeway 80 meters high pile were investigated with respect to the microstructure, the residual expansion in a NaOH-rich solution and the damage. Expansive gel was found around some stone aggregates. This caused the formation of wide cracks. These latter created a net-like structure on the concrete surface and spalling of the concrete cover was observed. Immersion tests in an alkali-rich solution also exhibited a potential residual expansion of the concrete, which was in turn related to the microstructure and the mineralogy of the cementitious material. The humidity, the aggregates and the reactive alkalis interact on a longterm basis over 50 years and largely control the extension of the degradation. Even with widely opened cracks, the AAR reaction potential may not be still completely stopped. Repair mortar applied on concrete may act as a barrier against the reaction, but it is not be able to completely mitigate the AAR effect.

Botulinum neurotoxin is both poison and medicine: botulinum therapy and iatrogenic botulism

Botulinum neurotoxin is the most potent poison known worldwide. Over the past two centuries, its structure and functions have been studied in detail, and obtained in its pure form. Knowledge of the mechanisms of action of botulinum neurotoxin has determined two directions of its possible use: negative, as a biological (toxin) weapon, and positive, as an agent that eliminates pathological muscle hypertonicity and neuropathic pain and can be used for aesthetic purposes (beauty injections).
 The lecture presents the chronological development of both directions and provides a detailed analysis of the various uses of botulinum neurotoxin as a medical and cosmetic treatment. Particular attention is paid to the side effects of botulinum therapy and ways to overcome them.

Efficacy of ceftazidime in a murine model following a lethal aerosol exposure to Burkholderia pseudomallei

Melioidosis is an endemic disease in numerous tropical regions. Additionally, the bacterium that causes melioidosis, Burkholderia pseudomallei, has potential to be used as a biological weapon. Therefore, development of effective and affordable medical countermeasures to serve regions affected by the disease and to have medical countermeasures available in the event of a bioterrorism attack remains critical. The current study evaluated the efficacy of eight distinct acute phase ceftazidime treatment regimens administered therapeutically in the murine model. At the conclusion of the treatment period, survival rates were significantly greater in several of the treated groups when compared to the control group. Pharmacokinetics of a single dose of ceftazidime were examined at 150 mg/kg, 300 mg/kg, and 600 mg/kg and were compared to an intravenous clinical dose administered at 2000 mg every eight hours. The clinical dose has an estimated 100% fT > 4*MIC which exceeded the highest murine dose of 300 mg/kg every six hours at 87.2% fT > 4*MIC. Based upon survival at the end of the treatment regimen and supplemented by pharmacokinetic modeling, a daily dose of 1200 mg/kg of ceftazidime, administered every 6 h at 300 mg/kg, provides protection in the acute phase of inhalation melioidosis in the murine model.

Biological and Immunological Characterization of a Functional L-HN Derivative of Botulinum Neurotoxin Serotype F.

Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) can cause nerve paralysis syndrome in mammals and other vertebrates. BoNTs are the most toxic biotoxins known and are classified as Class A biological warfare agents. BoNTs are mainly divided into seven serotypes A-G and new neurotoxins BoNT/H and BoNT/X, which have similar functions. BoNT proteins are 150 kDa polypeptide consisting of two chains and three domains: the light chain (L, catalytic domain, 50 kDa) and the heavy chain (H, 100 kDa), which can be divided into an N-terminal membrane translocation domain (HN, 50 kDa) and a C-terminal receptor binding domain (Hc, 50 kDa). In current study, we explored the immunoprotective efficacy of each functional molecule of BoNT/F and the biological characteristics of the light chain-heavy N-terminal domain (FL-HN). The two structure forms of FL-HN (i.e., FL-HN-SC: single chain FL-HN and FL-HN-DC: di-chain FL-HN) were developed and identified. FL-HN-SC could cleave the vesicle associated membrane protein 2 (VAMP2) substrate protein in vitro as FL-HN-DC or FL. While only FL-HN-DC had neurotoxicity and could enter neuro-2a cells to cleave VAMP2. Our results showed that the FL-HN-SC had a better immune protection effect than the Hc of BoNT/F (FHc), which indicated that L-HN-SC, as an antigen, provided the strongest protective effects against BoNT/F among all the tested functional molecules. Further in-depth research on the different molecular forms of FL-HN suggested that there were some important antibody epitopes at the L-HN junction of BoNT/F. Thus, FL-HN-SC could be used as a subunit vaccine to replace the FHc subunit vaccine and/or toxoid vaccine, and to develop antibody immune molecules targeting L and HN domains rather than the FHc domain. FL-HN-DC could be used as a new functional molecule to evaluate and explore the structure and activity of toxin molecules. Further exploration of the biological activity and molecular mechanism of the functional FL-HN or BoNT/F is warranted.

Phase-Change-Material-Impregnated Wood for Potential Energy-Saving Building Materials

PCMs (phase change materials) are ideal for thermal management solutions in buildings. This is because they release and store thermal energy during melting and freezing. When this material freezes, it releases a lot of energy in the form of latent heat of fusion or crystallization energy. Conversely, when the material melts, it absorbs the same amount of energy from its surroundings as it changes from a solid to a liquid state. In this study, Oriental spruce (Picea orientalis L.) sapwood was impregnated with three different commercial PCMs. The biological properties and the hygroscopic and thermal performance of the PCM-impregnated wood were studied. The morphology of PCM-impregnated wood was characterized through the use of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). PCM-impregnated wood demonstrated low performance in terms of storing and releasing heat during phase change processes, as confirmed by DSC. The results show that PCMs possess excellent thermal stability at working temperatures, and the most satisfying sample is PCM1W, with a phase change enthalpy of 40.34 J/g and a phase change temperature of 21.49 °C. This study revealed that PCMs are resistant to wood-destroying fungi. After the 96 h water absorption test, the water absorption of the wood samples decreased by 28%, and the tangential swelling decreased by 75%. In addition, it has been proven on a laboratory scale that the PCM material used is highly resistant to biological attacks. However, large-scale pilot studies are still needed.

From Smallpox Blankets to Reparative Practice

The past three years of COVID-19 have resurrected deep pain for the Native peoples of Turtle Island, including the Kichiwikwendong Anishinaabeg, my people. We were the recipients of smallpox blankets used as biological warfare in 1763 issued by Lord Jeffrey Amherst, the commanding general of British forces, as retribution for Odawa leader Pontiac’s battles to protect our homelands from the British. According to our elders, intentional biological warfare was actually wielded against the Odawas on at least two occasions, which reduced our nation from thousands to hundreds, with few left to bury our dead. Rather, the bodies had to be burned in a place that is still held sacred by Odawas today. Until COVID-19, I had never heard these stories. The Odawas faced almost complete annihilation as a result of the insatiable greed of empire, but we have persevered only to now see our Mother Earth in critical planetary crisis. As a result of the destruction of ecosystems and habitat, humans are now experiencing similar sicknesses in the form of pandemics. This article is a discussion of the impact of settler colonialism on Native homelands in the Great Lakes, the role education has played, and the reparative justice work being done to restore the health of the land and Indigenous peoples in Mnisota Makoċe, my home today.

System ochrony Polski przed bronią masowego rażenia

The article characterises the system of protection of the population, animals, natural environment and infrastructure located in the territory of the Republic of Poland against weapons of mass destruction (WMD), which include nuclear, radiological, biological and chemical weapons. The text is divided into seven parts, which discuss the types of WMD, the WMD protection system as a whole and its five components. Each section outlines the organisational and legal structure of this system and subsystems, and the tasks assigned to each of the bodies that comprise them.

Human death due to H5N1 amid the COVID-19 pandemic and Mpox outbreak: A call for action.

Human death due to H5N1 amid the COVID-19 pandemic and Mpox outbreak: A call for action.

Epigallocatechin gallate inhibits Francisella tularensis growth and suppresses the function of DNA-binding protein HU.

Francisella tularensis is a highly infectious intracellular bacterium causing tularemia disease and is regarded as a potential biological weapon. The development of a vaccine, effective treatment, or prophylactic substances targeted against tularemia is in the forefront of interest and could help to prevent or mitigate possible malevolent acts by bioterrorism utilizing F. tularensis. The viability of F. tularensis, and thus of a tularemia disease outbreak, might potentially be suppressed by simple commonly available natural substances. Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is contained in green tea and its antimicrobial effect has been described. Here, we show that EGCG can suppress F. tularensis growth and is able to reduce the bacterium's ability to replicate inside mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) without side effects on BMMs' own viability. We suggest one (but not the only) mechanism of EGCG action. We demonstrate that EGCG can block the main functions of HU protein, the important regulator of F. tularensis virulence, leading to overall attenuation of F. tularensis viability. EGCG can delay death of mice infected by F. tularensis and can be used as a prophylactic agent against tularemia disease. Postponing death by up to 2 days can provide sufficient opportunity to administer another treatment agent.

An underwater stable superhydrophobic surface for robust ultra-long-lasting biofouling resistance

An underwater stable superhydrophobic surface that displays a very low affinity to water and microorganisms is urgently required in marine engineering and offshore constructions. In this study, we demonstrated an underwater stable superhydrophobic surface with pressure resistance, chemical stability, biocompatibility, and biofouling resistance. The surface demonstrated superhydrophobicity under a water pressure of 13.72 kPa for up to 27 days. To examine the anti-biofouling property of the surface, the as-prepared samples were submerged in a natural lake for 50 days. The surface could withstand water flush and biological attacks for more than 35 days. The mechanical stability of the surface was evaluated by a sandpaper scratching test. An abrasion length of 12 m would not decrease the water contact angle of the surface, which is superior over the state-of-the-art coatings based on candle soot networks. The stable long-lasting underwater superhydrophobic surface is of great importance to marine applications.

Physical Chemical Investigation of Gamma-Irradiated Parchment for Preservation of Cultural Heritage

The historical artefacts of parchment are prone to degradation if the storage conditions are improper due to the collagen structure having a limited stability under physical, chemical, and biological agent attacks. The parchment structure is difficult to characterize due to the variety of manufacturing traditions (eastern/western), intrinsic variability of skins (i.e., species, breeding variation, living conditions, effects of pathologies, etc.), biodeterioration, and aging, and the main concern in its analysis is its uniformity. The deterioration of parchment collagen produces a rather stiff or in some circumstances, a relaxed structure. Any intervention or treatment of unique, very precious cultural heritage artefacts must not negatively influence the properties of the component materials. Gamma irradiation is a relatively new technique of bioremediation. Data on the leather properties pre- and post-ionizing radiation bioremediation treatments are few in the literature. Fewer data are available on the historical leather and parchment physical chemical characteristics after ionizing gamma irradiation. This research had two main objectives: (i) the characterization of the parchment structure's uniformity across the analyzed areas and its mechanical properties, i.e., tensile stress by mechanical tests and ATR-FTIR spectroscopy; and (ii) to establish parchment tolerance when exposed to ionizing gamma radiation as a pre-requisite for cultural heritage preservation irradiation treatment. It was found that the mechanical tests and ATR-FTIR spectroscopy may identify changes in the parchment's irradiated structure and that the preservation of cultural heritage parchment artefacts may be performed at maximum 15 kGy gamma irradiation dose.

A lightweight and secure sensing model for body area networks in the Internet of Things in biological warfare applications

In the era of communicational technologies, body area networks (BAN) provide useful and applicable devices for monitoring soldiers' health, of paramount importance for the governments and countries' security. However, BANs face two main challenges of security and energy, due to limitations in energy, memory, and process of the utilized sensors. Despite the developments of many solutions to tackle the stated challenges, the simultaneous consideration of energy and security has been overlooked in the majority of them. Besides, in some of the recommended solutions, the energy consumption is not optimum, resulting from discarding information content in data sampling. In addition, another group of the current methods is not practical, not guaranteeing security, given the high computational costs and the entropic inefficiency of encryption keys. Therefore, in the present study, a lightweight and secure sensing model is recommended for BANs, applicable in biological warfare. In the proposed model, the data are sampled according to their entropies, then compressed and encrypted simultaneously considering their sparsity levels, aiming at reducing energy consumption and boosting security. To synchronize two functions of compression and encryption, a measurement matrix, a type of sub-Gaussian matrix, is used. Furthermore, the biological data associated with the under-care soldier is encrypted using a key, guaranteeing the secure transfer of data to the smart healthcare center. In this process, the key is generated from the time interval calculated from the heart rate of the under-care soldier. The simulation data reveal that the proposed sensing model causes a reduction in energy consumption while providing security, compared to the previous methods.

Global educational and research trends during the Corona (Covid-19) pandemic

Corona pandemic (Covid-19) has changed many aspects of human life, as it managed to close the airports, impeded global trade, and led to the global economy shrinking more than the stage of the Great Depression that occurred in 1929, as well as halting the process of education and higher education. On the other hand, researchers faced challenges and obstacles such as carrying out field work collecting data from various sources, stopping research funding. The research funding priorities have further directed towards the research related to Covid-19. Moreover, Corona Pandemic made it obvious that higher education needs to be reformed and re-evaluated globally to be adaptable during crises. In addition to that, there is a need to develop curricula in the universities and enhance their research role to prepare qualified graduates for the labor market. The spread of the epidemic is no different from other security threats, such as espionage and cyber wars, and the closure is only an attempt to protect the health of citizens which is part of the national security of the society. It is no longer the only conventional war that threatens the national security of countries. Nowadays, Corona virus has proven that the next danger to countries arises from laboratories, that is, biological warfare, which may eliminate human life in seconds. Corona crisis has reconsidered a set of priorities and drew attention to the risks and threats due to neglecting the scientific research, generated tremendous pressure on innovative activities, stimulated innovation exclusively in the health sector and provided the opportunity for the emergence of true scientific competencies. However, during the global health crisis, many international scientific laboratories of respiratory diseases, infectious diseases, immunology, and other sciences in the same field have been involved to find vaccines against the emerging coronavirus (Covid-19). Statistics showed that the contribution of Arab universities and research centers was unassertive in the dissemination of scientific research and patents to confront the Covid-19 virus and did not rise to the international standard of the universities. Therefore, this chapter aims to clarify the trends of the digital learning of international educational institutions to develop the educational and research electronic platforms to produce digital scientific materials, providing digital scientific research sources and training in scientific research skills in the digital environment in addition to develop digital informational awareness for researchers, and publishing scientific research related to Covid. - 19. The current study also reviews the most important challenges encountered by researchers and graduate students in the use of advanced technology, such as 3D printing, artificial intelligence, and dealing with cloud computing and big data. The chapter further discusses the future of scientific research in light of the persistence of the Corona pandemic, and the lessons learned from this crisis. Keywords Corona pandemic, education and higher education, scientific research, educational platforms, digital education programs, innovative activities, scientific publishing for universities, patents, artificial intelligence.