Geopolymer Composites Research Articles

High‐performance engineered geopolymer composites: A sustainable approach using recycled brick waste

AbstractThis study examines the viability of using construction waste, specifically recycled brick waste powder (RBWP), as an alternative conventional industrial byproduct (fly ash) in the manufacturing of engineered geopolymer composites (EGC). The EGC mixtures are made with 40 μm diameter and 12 mm length polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fiber. RBWP replaces class‐F fly ash in EGC by 0, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%. This study produces six distinct EGC mixtures in total. The flexural strength, abrasion resistance, sorptivity, and water absorption of the EGC are investigated. Microstructural characterization is carried out using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Based on the results, when fly ash is replaced by 40% and 100%, respectively, adding RBWP to the EGC mixes significantly improves flexural strength by 39% and midspan deflection by 169%. Nevertheless, abrasion resistance significantly improves when fly ash is completely replaced with RBWP, even though sorptivity and water absorption increase by about 128% and 240%, respectively. The volume change is reduced by 25.4% when RBWP is used. Furthermore, the SEM study shows that the RBWP undergoes active geopolymerization in the EGC mixes.

Tensile strength and durability performances-based evaluation of 3D-printed and mold-cast fibrous geopolymer composites produced at various alkaline activator combinations

This study aimed to investigate the effects of the sodium silicate-to-sodium hydroxide ratio, SH molarity, and carbon fiber volume fraction on the tensile strength and durability properties of mold-cast and 3D-printed geopolymer composites, including flexural and splitting tensile strengths, ultrasonic pulse velocity, water absorption, sorptivity index, and chloride penetration properties. For that purpose, the ground-granulated blast furnace slag and fly ash were employed as alumino-silicate-rich raw material. In order to activate the alumino-silicate-rich raw material, two sodium silicate/sodium hydroxide ratios of 1 and 2 and three sodium hydroxide molarities of 8M, 10M, and 12M were designated. Furthermore, carbon fiber was incorporated into the geopolymer composites at three volume fractions: 0%, 0.3%, and 0.6%. In total, 18 nonfibrous and fibrous geopolymer composites were manufactured in two different ways: mold-cast and 3D-printed. The findings demonstrated that the strength and durability characteristics of 3D-printed specimens were inferior to those of mold-cast specimens, attributed to the presence of weak interfacial bonds between layers. It has been observed that the incorporation of carbon fiber has the effect of improving tensile strength performance. Nevertheless, the addition of carbon fiber led to a slight decrease in UPV values, and an increase in water absorption and sorptivity index values. Also, it adversely influenced the chloride penetration of geopolymer composites. The findings of the study also indicated that increasing the sodium hydroxide molarity had a positive impact on the strength and durability properties of the composites. Nevertheless, it was observed that increasing the sodium silicate-to-sodium hydroxide ratio led to a decrease in both tensile strength and durability performances. Additionally, the microstructure of the geopolymer composites was analyzed using scanning electron microscope (SEM) images.

High-performance superhydrophobic fly ash based geopolymers with graphene oxide reinforcement for enhanced durability and repellency

While high-performance fly ash geopolymers offer a demonstrably reduced carbon footprint in the construction industry, their inherent affinity for water (hydrophilicity) can facilitate the accumulation of moisture within the material matrix, potentially leading to the initiation and propagation of internal corrosion. The implementation of hydrophobic functionalization strategies on fly ash geopolymers demonstrably enhances their resistance to corrosive degradation. Nevertheless, a crucial challenge persists in the form of mitigating potential declines in mechanical strength. This investigation endeavors to attenuate the deleterious effects exerted by the hydrophobic aluminosilicate hydrate phase on the material's mechanical properties, while concurrently preserving its superhydrophobic character. Our approach involved the incorporation of a novel composite modifier, wherein polymethylhydrosiloxane (PMHS) served as the principal hydrophobic component. Graphene oxide (GO) was strategically introduced to achieve efficient pore filling, owing to its exceptional dispersibility. Furthermore, the presence of GO reinforces the mechanical performance of the composite due to its inherent superior mechanical properties. Additionally, the well-dispersed GO portion forms nano hydrophobic particles by covalently grafting hydrophobic groups, further enhancing the overall hydrophobicity of the composite. This synergistic interplay between PMHS and GO facilitated the successful development of a high-performance fly ash geopolymer composite characterized by exceptional mechanical strength, three-dimensional superhydrophobicity, and enhanced chemical stability. The graphene oxide reinforced high-performance three-dimensional superhydrophobic hybrid hydrogel geopolymer composites maintained high compressive strength while achieving a water contact angle of 153 ° and a water absorption rate of only 1.7 %. Remarkably, the geopolymer retains its high hydrophobicity even after 24 hours in an acid-base solution, with a contact angle exceeding 140° and water absorption rates lower than 4 %.

Experimental research on the flexural properties and pore structure characteristics of engineered geopolymer composites prepared by calcined natural clay

The synthesis of high ductility geopolymer composites using excavated natural clay is an economical and environmentally friendly method to realize the utilization of excavated natural clay. This paper presents an experimental research on the flexural properties and pore structure characteristics of engineered geopolymer composites (EGC) prepared by calcined natural clay. The EGC with different slag and fiber contents were prepared and the four-point bending tests were conducted on the EGC. The effect of slag and fiber content on the flexural strength, flexural deflection and flexural toughness were discussed. The microscopic pore structure characteristics of EGC were further analyzed. The optimal mixture ratio of calcined clay-based EGC with the highest flexural toughness was proposed. The results show that fiber can significantly enhance the flexural properties and cracking control ability of EGC. The ultimate flexural strength, flexural deflection, flexural strengthening index and flexural toughness of EGC all increase with increasing fiber content. The results also show the addition of 10.0% slag can increase the flexural strength and flexural toughness, while excessive slag content reduces the flexural properties. The EGC with 10.0% slag content and 2.5% fiber content exhibits excellent flexural properties and cracking control ability. The ultimate flexural strength and flexural toughness index reach 9.75 MPa and 486.11, showing the highest flexural toughness.

Effect of curing temperature, silica fume, and waste tire rubber aggregate on material characterization of lightweight geopolymer composite

This study investigates the potential effect of curing temperature (80 °C and 100 °C), the effect of using waste tire rubber aggregates (WTRA), and silica fume (SF) on the properties of lightweight geopolymer (LG) composite. In LG, SF replaced 20 % of the ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), and WTRA replaced pumice aggregate to varying degrees (15 %, 30 %, and 45 % by volume). The physical properties of the LG composite were assessed through apparent porosity, water absorption, and hardened density. The mechanical properties were examined by testing compressive strength (CS) and flexural strength (FS). The effect of high temperature (300 °C and 600 °C) was examined on CS and mass loss of LG composite. The durability of the LG composite was analyzed using mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), capillary water absorption, freeze-thaw, and thermal conductivity. The material characterization of the composite was done using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and differential thermogravimetry (DTG) curves. After 28 days, LG composites showed increased porosity and water absorption with the increased WTRA and SF, with higher values at 100 °C. Compressive and flexural strengths decreased with the increased WTRA and SF, especially at higher temperatures. The TGA-DTG curves show that the LG-0–80 mix had the lowest mass loss (15.25 % at 400°C and 19.36 % at 600 °C), while the LG-SF-45–100 mix had the highest mass loss (22.22 % and 24.53 %, respectively). XRD and TGA-DTG analyses reveal that using SF increases Ca(OH)₂ peaks and alters the geopolymer composition, improving the mechanical performance of the LG-SF-0–80 mix and enhancing the thermal stability of the composites.

High-temperature behaviour of geopolymer composites containing carbon fibre and nano-silica: Mechanical, microstructure, and air-void characteristics

The fly ash–ground granulated blast-furnace slag-based geopolymer (FSG) represents a groundbreaking material, offering a sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to conventional construction materials. This paper presents a systematic experimental study on FSG reinforced with carbon fibre (CF, 0%–1.0%) and nano-silica (NS, 1%–3%) at high temperatures (20, 200, 400, 600, 800, and 900 °C). Various tests concerning appearance, residual strength, uniaxial tension, XRD, FTIR, TGA, SEM, and air-void characteristics were conducted to analyse thermal effects. The findings show that as temperature increases, the colour of the geopolymer transitions from dark grey to yellow grey. Enhanced geopolymerisation during thermal solidification from 20 to 400 °C significantly increases the compressive, flexural, and tensile strengths of the geopolymer. The addition of CF and NS improves the residual strength of geopolymers at high temperatures, with optimal concentrations found to be 0.6% for CF and 2% for NS. CF maintains its bridging effect at high temperatures, enhancing fibre–matrix bonding, while NS promotes the formation of additional hydration products on CF surfaces, thereby strengthening the material further. After exposure to 800 °C, despite a weakening of the fibre–matrix interface, the modified geopolymers (FSGC0.6 and FSGC0.6N2) exhibit finer air bubble chord lengths and superior air-void characteristics than the control group. This supports the theory that the synergistic action of CF and NS not only enhances geopolymerisation but also fills pores, thus limiting crack propagation and densifying the pore structure.

Effect of nano-silica on mechanical properties and microstructure of engineered geopolymer composites

Effect of nano-silica on mechanical properties and microstructure of engineered geopolymer composites

Performance of Hybrid Fiber Reinforced Geopolymer Composites: Scientometric and Conventional Review

Hybrid fibers are an interesting addition to reinforce geopolymer-based composites due to their advantages over single-fiber reinforcement. The performance of hybrid fibers is dependent on the fibers' composition, type, properties, length, and volume fraction. Therefore, this review discusses the state-of-the-art hybrid fiber-reinforced geopolymer composites (HFRGC) through two approaches: scientometric analysis and conventional review of HFRGC based on data extracted from Scopus from 2013 until 2023. The scientometric analysis was carried out by adopting VOS Viewer software and focuses on the annual publication of documents, top publication sources, co-occurrence keywords, researchers, top-cited papers, and countries. In contrast, the desk study refers to experimental data on the fresh properties and compressive, tensile, and flexural properties of HFRGC. This review output aids researchers in networking, promoting cooperative research, exchanging ideas, and creating joint ventures among researchers of HFRGC worldwide. The performance of HFRGC obtained from the desk study showed the potential of HFRGC as an option for a greener composite that will benefit the construction industry.

An Overview of Fly-ash Geopolymer Composites in Sustainable Advance Construction Materials

Fly-ash geopolymer composites are an exciting advancement in eco-friendly construction materials. Fly-ash has become a sustainable alternative to regular cement because the approach addresses critical concerns in construction, such as high energy use, excessive carbon emissions and the challenge of managing industrial waste. In this review, a brief discussion on how fly-ash geopolymer composites could transform construction practices and reduce their impact on the environment. The construction industry is a major contributor to climate change, whereas industrial byproducts like fly-ash can also be an environmental challenge. Thus, the fly-ash geopolymer composites offer an innovative solution by reusing this waste to create environmentally friendly binding materials. Fly-ash can effectively replace traditional cement in construction, improving the durability and sustainability of buildings. By reducing our reliance on regular cement, these composites could revolutionise construction practices across various industries. Developing and widely adopting fly-ash geopolymer composites could bring substantial benefits. It could significantly reduce the construction industry's carbon footprint and contribute to global efforts to combat climate change. Additionally, ongoing research aims to enhance these composites' strength, heat resistance, and chemical durability, further promoting sustainable construction and supporting a circular economy by turning industrial waste into valuable construction materials.

Review of Recent Developments in Tensile Properties of Engineered Geopolymer Composites

Engineered Cementitious Composite (ECC) is a type of highly ductile cementitious material. However, due to its characteristics of high energy consumption and high carbon emissions, it is necessary to seek a new type of low-carbon and environmentally friendly substitute. Engineered Geopolymer Composite (EGC), as a promising construction material for replacing ECC, has broad application prospects. Through visual analysis of the relevant literature in Web of Science, it was discovered that the research on EGC mainly concentrates on aspects such as the types of precursors, the chemical composition of the alkali-activated solution, and the related parameters of fibers. This paper mainly combines the relevant experimental research data on the tensile properties of EGC conducted by scholars at home and abroad, and focuses on analyzing the influence of precursor types, the chemical composition of the alkaline activator, and fibers on the tensile properties of EGC. The statistical results indicate that fly ash and ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) are the most commonly used precursor materials. Replacing an appropriate amount of fly ash in the precursor with GGBFS can significantly enhance the tensile strength of EGC. The type of alkaline activator and its molarity have a relatively obvious influence on the tensile properties of EGC. An increase in the molarity of NaOH within a certain range can enhance the tensile strength of EGC. Furthermore, the incorporation of fibers, especially synthetic fibers such as polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers, as well as inorganic fibers such as glass fibers (GF) and carbon fibers (CF), can effectively enhance the tensile strength and tensile strain capacity of EGC. The use of hybrid fibers may further improve the tensile properties.

Concretes meeting the requirements of sustainable construction

The article concerns the production of lightweight geopolymer concretes based on raw materials from alkali-activated waste, which is consistent with the doctrine of sustainable construction. Fly ash, which is the main component of these geopolymer composites, constitutes energy waste and causes lower emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants than traditional cement. The article presents the optimisation of the geopolymer concrete recipe with different dosages of fly ash (200, 300, 400, 500, 600 and 700 kg/m3) and two recipes, the first of which is based on the use of fly ash aggregate, the largest fraction of which was subjected to surface impregnation, and the second one is based on the use of aggregate without any impregnation. Both recipes use an alkaline solution for alkaline activation with a concentration of 6 mol/dm3. Compressive strength tests and apparent density were carried out on the samples. The adequacy of the use of surface impregnation has been demonstrated in the case of low fly ash content (<500 kg/m3), and the optimal recipe based on fly ash in the amount of 600 kg/m3 was indicated.

Hybrid Geopolymer Composites Based on Fly Ash Reinforced with Glass and Flax Fibers

This article’s aim is to analyze physical, mechanical, and fracture properties as well as the thermal investigation of geopolymer composites reinforced with flax, glass fiber, and also the hybrid combination of fibers. Two types of matrices were considered as composites matrices. The first composition was based on fly ash and river sand. The second matrix composition contained fly ash and glass spheres. The content of reinforcement was 1% by mass. Compressive strength and three-point bending fracture tests were performed. The values of fracture toughness and fracture energy were determined. The resonance method was used to verify the dynamic characteristics, such as the dynamic modulus of elasticity and the dynamic Poisson ratio. The results show that single-type fibers in composites based on fly ash and glass spheres did not affect compressive strength. However, introducing hybrid reinforcement increased compressive strength by about 10% compared to the reference specimens. Flax fibers and hybrid reinforcement ensured higher fracture toughness and energy. The results also revealed great potential for glass sphere application to geopolymer materials in terms of fracture mechanics and thermal properties. Despite the lower strength properties in relation to geopolymers based on sand aggregate, applying reinforced fibers into the composite with glass spheres enhanced the compressive strength compared to other materials. Materials modified with glass spheres have a thermal conductivity twice as low as that of materials containing river sand.

Physico-mechanical properties of geopolymers after thermal exposure: Influence of filler, temperature and dwell time

Geopolymers offer increasingly better physico-mechanical properties concerning thermal exposure at high temperatures compared to ordinary Portland cements (OPC). This paper aims to comprehensively study the use of different types of fillers with different particle size distributions in terms of type (silica sands and cordierites) and surface area, loaded at different temperatures and dwell times (30 min and 180 min). After thermal exposure in the temperature range of 100–1000 °C, geopolymer samples were evaluated regarding physico-mechanical properties compared to samples without thermal exposure, using OPC as a reference material. Geopolymer samples were found to have a denser microstructure than OPC, supporting their better resistance to elevated temperature conditions. In addition, the influence of different filler compositions on the resulting internal structure and porosity was demonstrated. Samples containing fillers in two particle size ranges showed better densification than samples with one particle size range.Conversely, OPC samples showed the least favourable results. In addition, the mechanical behaviour of the geopolymers under static loading, especially in bending and compression tests, showed that the prepared geopolymers exhibited better properties than Portland cement at elevated temperatures, especially in the range of 500–1000 °C. In conclusion, appropriately designed geopolymer compositions have the potential to be a sustainable material, a high-performance alternative to traditional building materials.

Physical, Mechanical and Durability Properties of Eco-Friendly Engineered Geopolymer Composites

Engineered geopolymer composite (EGC) is a high-performance material with enhanced mechanical and durability capabilities. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and silica fume (SF) are common binder materials in producing EGC. However, due to the scarcity and high cost of these materials in some countries, sustainable alternatives are needed. This research focused on producing eco-friendly EGC made of cheaper and more common pozzolanic waste materials that are rich in aluminum and silicon. Rice husk ash (RHA), granite waste powder (GWP), and volcanic pumice powder (VPP) were used as partial substitutions (10–50%) of GGBFS in EGC. The effects of these wastes on workability, unit weight, compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, water absorption, and porosity of EGC were examined. The residual compressive strength of the proposed EGC mixtures at high elevated temperatures (200, 400, and 600 °C) was also evaluated. Additionally, scanning electron microscope (SEM) was employed to analyze the EGC microstructure characteristics. The experimental results demonstrated that replacing GGBFS with RHA and GWP at high replacement ratios decreased EGC workability by up to 23.1% and 30.8%, respectively, while 50% VPP improved EGC workability by up to 38.5%. EGC mixtures made with 30% RHA, 20% GWP, or 10% VPP showed the optimal results in which they exhibited the highest compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths, as well as the highest residual compressive strength when exposed to high elevated temperatures. The water absorption and porosity increased by up to 106.1% and 75.1%, respectively, when using RHA; increased by up to 23.2% and 18.6%, respectively, when using GWP; and decreased by up to 24.7% and 22.6%, respectively, when using VPP in EGC.

Studying the metakaolin content, fiber type, and high-temperature effects on the physico-mechanical properties of fly ash-based geopolymer composites

Studying the metakaolin content, fiber type, and high-temperature effects on the physico-mechanical properties of fly ash-based geopolymer composites

Explicable AI-based modeling for the compressive strength of metakaolin-derived geopolymers

Geopolymers (GPs) are produced using a variety of alumina and silica-rich ingredients, including natural sources, such as calcined clays, as well as waste by-products, like fly ash and slag. It is difficult to measure the effect of each parameter on the strength of GP composites via experimental research. In this regard, this research aimed to build artificial intelligence (AI)-aided estimation models to quantify the impact of mix proportions on the compressive strength (CS) of MK-based GP mortar. Gene expression programming (GEP) and multi-expression programming (MEP) tools were used for models' development due to their advantage of yielding model equations for future predictions. Hyperparameters in GEP and MEP were systematically adjusted to enhance the models' optimal predictability. The regression and error analysis proved the superiority of MEP models over GEP models. In comparison to the GEP model, which had R2, MAE, MSE, RMSE, and objective function values of 0.90, 4.02, 25.3, 5.03, and 0.08, respectively, the MEP model demonstrated greater accuracy with values of 0.96, 3.24, 16.4, 4.05, and 0.02 respectively. Furthermore, SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis was conducted to determine the effect of various parameters on the CS of MK-based GP mortar. The established models' equations may be exploited to assess the CS of MK-based GP composites with various input parameters, hence reducing the need for further laboratory testing. Implementing this approach not only improves the efficiency of material design but also encourages the sustainable utilization of locally accessible resources in the manufacturing of geopolymers.

Characterizing nano-indentation and microstructural properties of mine tailings-based geopolymers

The mining industry's extraction processes produce vast amounts of waste, including mine tailings (MT), traditionally stored in large ponds, causing significant environmental harm due to a lack of effective recycling methods. This research explores the potential of converting MT into a resource i.e., precursors in geopolymer synthesis. By analyzing the physicochemical and mineralogical properties of MT, the study formulates four geopolymer composites, substituting up to 30 wt% MT for fly ash. The composites' mechanical and microstructural properties show a contribution of MT in the stability of the matrix. Compressive strength of 59 MPa when incorporating 30 wt% MT, along with water absorption, microstructural analysis, and environmental impact assessments, support the hypothesis that the matrix is improved. Nano-indentation techniques further evaluated the nanomechanical properties, such as Young's modulus and fracture toughness. The findings reveal that geopolymers with 30 wt% MT exhibits up to 130 % increased strength. This research highlights the potential for innovative, eco-friendly solutions in waste management and material production, contributing to sustainable mining practices and advancing the field of geopolymer technology.

Effect of granulated blast furnace slag on uniaxial compression fatigue properties of engineered geopolymer composites

Engineered geopolymer composites (EGCs), emerging as a novel eco-friendly cementitious material, exhibit considerable potential in diverse applications. Granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) is a by-product of the blast furnace ironmaking process. Owing to its exceptional cementing properties, GBFS is frequently incorporated into geopolymer materials to enhance strength and stability, while also achieving slurry solidification at ambient temperature. The study examined the effect of different rates of GBFS replacement on the fatigue behavior of EGCs using uniaxial compression fatigue testing, with a particular focus on the changes in fatigue life and fatigue deformation. The results indicate that the fatigue life of EGC conforms to a Weibull distribution. While a higher GBFS replacement rate can improve the compressive strength of EGC, it has a detrimental effect on the fatigue life. Furthermore, when subjected to fatigue loading, the total strain accumulation, residual strain, and fatigue stiffness of EGC exhibited a three-stage evolutionary pattern, and remained constant during the secondary creep stage. Therefore, the comprehensive effect of adding GBFS to EGC on material strength and fatigue properties should be taken into account. This study uncovers the potential negative impacts of GBFS on the fatigue properties of EGC, contradicting the previous belief that GBFS could enhance the mechanical properties of geopolymers. Therefore, a comprehensive and meticulous assessment is necessary when contemplating the use of GBFS as a reinforcement material for EGC.

The confinement effect of basalt fibers for reinforced geopolymer composites: Flexural, shear and torsion capability for ductility and failure

Geopolymer concrete is a promising candidate to replace conventional concrete (CC), as geopolymer concrete is based on alkali-activated binders instead of Portland cement. The elimination of cement in the mix leads to a reduction in the release of greenhouse gases. It is known from the literature that the microscale properties of geopolymer concrete are similar to those of its counterparts. However, the structural performance of geopolymer elements should be investigated in detail. Therefore, in this study, the effect of basalt fiber ratio (%0 and %1), geopolymer mix type and stirrup (with and without stirrup) on flexural (four-point test), shear (overhanging test) and torsional (pure torsion test) behavior of RC beam were investigated. In these experiments, slag based geopolymer concrete with waste marble, geopolymer concrete with fly ash and geopolymer concrete with quartz powder were used in order to manufactured to the RC beams. The mechanical performances of RC beams were assessed by using load-deflection curves, stiffness, ductility, failure mode and crack propagations. Test results revealed that the use of basalt fiber tolerated the decrease in strength, although the shear, flexural and torsion capacity decreased if stirrups were not used in the beams. The use of fly ash in the mixture was more effective on the strength than other materials in terms of the aluminate and silicate it contained.

Research on the Physical Properties of an Eco-Friendly Layered Geopolymer Composite

Building envelopes with natural fibers are the future of sustainable construction, combining ecology and energy efficiency. The geopolymer building envelope was reinforced with innovative composite bars and two types of natural insulation (coconut mats and flax/hemp non-woven fabrics) were used as the core material. A 10 mol sodium hydroxide solution with an aqueous sodium silicate solution was used for the alkaline activation of the geopolymers. The purpose of this study was to confirm the feasibility of producing geopolymer composites with insulating layers made of renewable materials, which would have compressive strengths like those of C25/30-grade concrete and thermal conductivity coefficients like those of lightweight concrete. This publication presents the results of physicochemical tests on the base materials (oxide (XRF) and mineral phase (XRD) analysis as well as morphology and EDS) and studies the physical (density measurements), mechanical (flexural and compressive strength tests) and insulating properties (thermal conductivity measurements) of the finished sandwich partitions. The composites achieved a flexural strength of 7 MPa, a compressive strength of up to 30 MPa and a decrease in the thermal conductivity coefficient of about 60%. The research demonstrates contribution to sustainable construction by developing geopolymer composites, offering both structural integrity and superior thermal insulation. This innovation not only reduces reliance on traditional, carbon-intensive materials but also promotes the use of eco-friendly resources, significantly lowering the carbon footprint of construction. The integration of natural fibers into geopolymer matrices addresses key environmental concerns, advancing a rapidly growing field that aligns with global efforts toward energy efficiency, waste reduction, and circular economy principles in building design.