Geological Field Observations Research Articles

New Structural Elements in Tellian Foreland Domain of the Northeastern Tunisia (Mateur Plain) after Integrating Geological and Geophysical Data

The following paper presents an integrated geological (field observations, wells data) and geophysical data (Gravity measurements and seismic profiles) in Tellian foreland domain of the northeastern Tunisia (Mateur plain) served for a new proposed structural map with many faults already recognized or supposed by traditional structural studies and highlights major regional accidents.

Major types and time–space distribution of Mesozoic ore deposits in South China and their geodynamic settings

The ore deposits of the Mesozoic age in South China can be divided into three groups, each with different metal associations and spatial distributions and each related to major magmatic events. The first event occurred in the Late Triassic (230–210 Ma), the second in the Mid–Late Jurassic (170–150 Ma), and the third in the Early–Mid Cretaceous (120–80 Ma). The Late Triassic magmatic event and associated mineralization is characterized by peraluminous granite-related W–Sn–Nb–Ta mineral deposits. The Triassic ore deposits are considerably disturbed or overprinted by the later Jurassic and Cretaceous tectono-thermal episodes. The Mid–Late Jurassic magmatic and mineralization events consist of 170–160 Ma porphyry–skarn Cu and Pb–Zn–Ag vein deposits associated with I-type granites and 160–150 Ma metaluminous granite-related polymetallic W–Sn deposits. The Late Jurassic metaluminous granite-related W–Sn deposits occur in a NE-trending cluster in the interior of South China, such as in the Nanling area. In the Early–Mid Cretaceous, from about 120 to 80 Ma, but peaking at 100–90 Ma, subvolcanic-related Fe deposits developed and I-type calc-alkaline granitic intrusions formed porphyry Cu–Mo and porphyry-epithermal Cu–Au–Ag mineral systems, whereas S-type peraluminous and/or metaluminous granitic intrusions formed polymetallic Sn deposits. These Cretaceous mineral deposits cluster in distinct areas and are controlled by pull-apart basins along the South China continental margin. Based on mineral assemblage, age, and space–time distribution of these mineral systems, integrated with regional geological data and field observations, we suggest that the three magmatic–mineralization episodes are the result of distinct geodynamic regimes. The Triassic peraluminous granites and associated W–Sn–Nb–Ta mineralization formed during post-collisional processes involving the South China Block, the North China Craton, and the Indo-China Block, mostly along the Dabie-Sulu and Songma sutures. Jurassic events were initially related to the shallow oblique subduction of the Izanagi plate beneath the Eurasian continent at about 175 Ma, but I-type granitoids with porphyry Cu and vein-type Pb–Zn–Ag deposits only began to form as a result of the breakup of the subducted plate at 170–160 Ma, along the NNE-trending Qinzhou-Hangzhou belt (also referred to as Qin-Hang or Shi-Hang belt), which is the Neoproterozoic suture that amalgamates the Yangtze Craton and Cathaysia Block. A large subduction slab window is assumed to have formed in the Nanling and adjacent areas in the interior of South China, triggering the uprise of asthenospheric mantle into the upper crust and leading to the emplacement of metaluminous granitic magma and associated polymetallic W–Sn mineralization. A relatively tectonically quiet period followed between 150 and 135 Ma in South China. From 135 Ma onward, the angle of convergence of the Izanagi plate changed from oblique to parallel to the coastline, resulting in continental extensional tectonics and reactivation of regional-scale NE-trending faults, such as the Tan-Lu fault. This widespread extension also promoted the development of NE-trending pull-apart basins and metamorphic core complexes, accompanied by volcanism and the formation of epithermal Cu–Au deposits, granite-related polymetallic Sn–(W) deposits and hydrothermal U deposits between 120 and 80 Ma (with a peak activity at 100–90 Ma).

Middle Paleozoic convergent orogenic belts in western Inner Mongolia (China): framework, kinematics, geochronology and implications for tectonic evolution of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt

Based mainly on field geological observation and geochronologic data, six tectonic units have been recognized in western Inner Mongolia (China), including, from south to north: North China Craton (NCC), Southern Orogenic Belt (SOB), Hunshandake Block (HB), Northern Orogenic Belt (NOB), South Mongolia microcontinent (SMM), and Southern margin of Ergun Block (SME), suggesting that the tectonic framework of the CAOB in western Inner Mongolia is characterized by an accretion of different blocks and orogenic belts. The SOB includes, from north to south, fold belt, mélange, arc-pluton belt, and retroarc foreland basin, representing a southern subduction–collision system between the NCC and HB blocks during 500–440Ma. The NOB consists also of four units: arc-pluton belt, mélange, foreland molasse basin, and fold belt, from north to south, representing a northern subduction–collision system between the HB and SMM blocks during 500–380Ma. From the early Paleozoic, the Paleo-Asian oceanic domains subducted to the north and the south, resulting in the forming of the SOB and the NOB in 410Ma and 380Ma, respectively. This convergent orogenic system, therefore, constrained the consumption process of the Paleo-Asian Ocean in western Inner Mongolia. A double subduction–collision accretionary process is the dominant geodynamic feature for the eastern part of the CAOB during the early to middle Paleozoic.

Identification of weathered troughs in granites for tunneling at Daya Bay reactor-neutrino experiment site

Abstract: Weathered troughs are frequently encountered in granites. They can cause problems to tunneling in the rocks and have to be properly addressed. The structures or spatial shapes of weathered troughs were seldom clarified in the past. In this paper, four weathered troughs are identified by means of geophysical exploration, core drilling, logging, and in-situ stress measurement at Daya Bay reactor-neutrino experiment site in Shenzhen, China. The weathered troughs are exposed on the ground or partially covered by grass and soils, which will threaten the safety of horizontal tunneling at a shallow depth. High electrical resistivity (HER) method is adopted for its feasibility and practicality, in combination with field geological observation, ultrasonic televiewer in boreholes and in-situ stress measurement. By comparing the HER values of completely decomposed to fresh rocks, it is indicated that the HER values of weathered troughs in natural state are 0.4–100 Ω · m, and the in-situ stress is abnormally lower than those at upper and lower layers. Field investigations show that the depths of the four weathered troughs are 30–182 m, with bottom elevation over 10 m. The volume of each weathered trough is mostly over 1 × 106 m3 in inverted conic form. The weathered troughs often occur in various kinds of landforms, such as ridges, gullies or gently dipping dish-like depression areas. Faults and boundaries of different granitic plutons as well as joints govern the formation, locations and strikes of these troughs under development.

A physically-based three dimensional fracture network modeling technique

In poorly developed fractured rocks, the contribution of individual fracture on rock conductivity should be considered. However, due to the lack of data, a deterministic approach cannot be used. The conventional way to model discrete fractures is to use a Poisson process, with prescribed distribution, for fracture size and orientation. Recently, a stochastic approach, based on the idea that the elastic energy due to fractures follows a Boltzmann distribution, has been used to generate realizations of correlated fractures in two dimensions. The elastic energy function has been derived by applying the appropriate physical laws in an elastic medium. The resulting energy function has been used in the simulated annealing algorithm to generate the realizations of two dimensional fracture networks. The main contribution of this work is to extend this technique to 3D, and to better incorporate geological field observations. In 3D, the method has adjusted the orientation of fractures to three orthogonal sets. Moreover, we investigate the effects of boundary condition, fracture size distribution, and the anisotropy of the medium. We have observed that far field stress can control the orientation of fractures. As a result, this fracture modeling technique can be used to stochastically generate sub-seismic fractures.

Correlations of fluvial knickzones with landslide dams, lithologic contacts, and faults in the southwestern Annapurna Range, central Nepalese Himalaya

We investigate the role of landslide dams, spatial changes in lithology, and rock uplift on faults in the formation of knickzones on bedrock rivers. We focus our analysis in the southwestern Annapurna Range of the central Nepalese Himalaya where detailed geologic maps, topographic data, field observations, and aerial photographs are available. We identified knickzones in our study area from normalized river steepness indices (ksn values) extracted from river longitudinal profiles derived from a 25 m digital elevation model we interpolated from digitized topographic map contours. We compared the location of these knickzones with (1) lithologic contacts and faults from a detailed geologic map of the Modi Khola valley and (2) inferred ancient landslide dam features mapped from field observations and aerial photographs. The steepest location on the Modi Khola occurs near the same latitude as the steepest reach on the Mardi Khola located directly to the east, potentially highlighting a major topographic transition across the Annapurna. However, we find that landslide dams once blocked the flow of the Modi Khola, and damming followed by incision after landslide breaching can explain the location of these knickzones without the need for active faulting near the Main Central thrust. We also conclude that (1) knickzones do not correlate with any spatial changes in lithology and (2) knickzones generated by rock uplift on unmapped faults cannot be ruled out. We emphasize that disentangling the processes responsible for knickzone formation remains challenging even when high‐resolution geologic and topographic data are available.

Field geologic observation and sample collection strategies for planetary surface exploration: Insights from the 2010 Desert RATS geologist crewmembers

Observation is the primary role of all field geologists, and geologic observations put into an evolving conceptual context will be the most important data stream that will be relayed to Earth during a planetary exploration mission. Sample collection is also an important planetary field activity, and its success is closely tied to the quality of contextual observations. To test protocols for doing effective planetary geologic fieldwork, the Desert RATS (Research and Technology Studies) project deployed two prototype rovers for two weeks of simulated exploratory traverses in the San Francisco volcanic field of northern Arizona. The authors of this paper represent the geologist crewmembers who participated in the 2010 field test. We document the procedures adopted for Desert RATS 2010 and report on our experiences regarding these protocols. Careful consideration must be made of various issues that impact the interplay between field geologic observations and sample collection, including time management; strategies related to duplication of samples and observations; logistical constraints on the volume and mass of samples and the volume/transfer of data collected; and paradigms for evaluation of mission success. We find that the 2010 field protocols brought to light important aspects of each of these issues, and we recommend best practices and modifications to training and operational protocols to address them. Underlying our recommendations is the recognition that the capacity of the crew to “flexibly execute” their activities is paramount. Careful design of mission parameters, especially field geologic protocols, is critical for enabling the crews to successfully meet their science objectives.

Palaeoclimatic evolution during Eocene and its influence on oil shale mineralisation, Fushun basin, China

The Fushun basin is a small, explored, coal and oil shale-bearing, Cenozoic fault basin in the Liaoning Province, northeast China. The basin mainly consists of Eocene swamp to lacustrine deposits of the Guchengzi to Xilutian Formation, and contains the biggest opencast oil shale mine in Asia. This mine has provided an ideal opportunity to undertake palaeoclimate reconstruction in this basin based on a single geological profile and the analyses of 93 samples, using various approaches, namely field geological observation, clay mineralogical and geochemical (Sr/Ba, Sr/Cu, stable C and O isotope) analyses, all of which were compared with palaeobotanical data. The Eocene climate of Fushun basin evolved from warm temperate to north subtropical, and generally changed from warm humid to subhumid–semiarid. Paleoclimatic and geochemical parameters shows that the very warm and humid climate during Jijuntun Formation increased the initial productivity of lake water, and caused a steady stratification of the lake water, then caused oxygen lack in the bottom of water. Productivity of the lake provides the mean origin of organic matters for oil shale formation, and steady anoxic environment is beneficial for the conservation of organic matters.

A comparative study of melt-rock reactions in the mantle: laboratory dissolution experiments and geological field observations

Systematic variations in mineralogy and chemical composition across dunite-harzburgite (DH) and dunite-harzburgite-lherzolite (DHL) sequences in the mantle sections of ophiolites have been widely observed. The compositional variations are due to melt-rock reactions as basaltic melts travel through mantle peridotite, and may be key attributes to understanding melting and melt transport processes in the mantle. In order to better understand melt-rock reactions in the mantle, we conducted laboratory dissolution experiments by juxtaposing a spinel lherzolite against an alkali basalt or a mid-ocean ridge basalt. The charges were run at 1 GPa and either 1,300°C or 1,320°C for 8–28 h. Afterward, the charges were slowly cooled to 1,200°C and 1 GPa, which was maintained for at least 24 h to promote in situ crystallization of interstitial melts. Cooling allowed for better characterization of the mineralogy and mineral compositional trends produced and observed from melt-rock reactions. Dissolution of lherzolite in basaltic melts with cooling results in a clinopyroxene-bearing DHL sequence, in contrast to sequences observed in previously reported isothermal-isobaric dissolution experiments, but similar to those observed in the mantle sections of ophiolites. Compositional variations in minerals in the experimental charges follow similar melt-rock trends suggested by the field observations, including traverses across DH and DHL sequences from mantle sections of ophiolites as well as clinopyroxene and olivine from clinopyroxenite, dunite, and wehrlite dikes and xenoliths. These chemical variations are controlled by the composition of reacting melt, mineralogy and composition of host peridotite, and grain-scale processes that occur at various stages of melt-peridotite reaction. We suggest that laboratory dissolution experiments are a robust model to natural melt-rock reaction processes and that clinopyroxene in replacive dunites in the mantle sections of ophiolites is genetically linked to clinopyroxene in cumulate dunite and pyroxenites through melt transport and melt-rock reaction processes in the mantle.

The fracture system and the melt emplacement beneath the Deception Island active volcano, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica

AbstractA new magnetotelluric (MT) survey, along with new topographic parametric sonar (TOPAS) profiles and geological field observations, were carried out on the Deception Island active volcano. 3-D resistivity models reveal an ENE–WSW elongated conductor located at a depth between two and ten kilometres beneath the south-eastern part of the island, which we interpret as a combination of partial melt and hot fluids. The emplacement of the melt in the upper crust occurs along the ENE–WSW oriented, SSE dipping regional normal fault zone, which facilitates melt intrusion at shallower levels with volcanic eruptions and associated seismicity. Most of the onshore and offshore volcanic rocks are deformed by high-angle normal and sub-vertical faults with dominant dip-slip kinematics, distributed in sets roughly parallel and orthogonal to the major ENE–WSW regional tectonic trends. Faults development is related to perturbations of the regional stress field associated with magma chamber overpressure and deflation in a regional setting dominated by NW–SE to NNW–SSE extension.

Generation of spatially correlated fracture models for seismic simulations

SUMMARY The critical geometrical parameters that quantify the spatial distribution of natural fractures are the orientation, length and position of fractures. Knowledge of their spatial distribution is important as they control the movement of subsurface fluids and also influence seismic waves propagating in the subsurface. However, generating realistic models of all of these geometrical parameters to use in forward seismic modelling or inversion applications can become very difficult, especially when constraints are available only at a few sparse well locations. Hence, this provides strong motivation for applying seismic data to estimate these quantities in field settings, and reliable seismic modelling provides important constraints for interpretation and inversion. The Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) approach has been used frequently to generate models with stochastic distributions of fractures based on sparse well and seismic data. However, most of these studies lack any constraint from physical models of the behaviour of fractured media. In this paper, we implement and extend an alternative modelling technique to generate several realizations of a fracture model beginning with theoretical results for the strain energy of a fractured material and propose ways to better incorporate geological field observations. The method utilizes an elastic energy function that sums the interactions of all pairs of fractures present in the model. The energy for each pair depends on the distance between the two fractures, their orientations, lengths and some material properties. This energy function also serves as an objective function for a simulated annealing (SA) algorithm used to obtain multiple realizations of correlated fracture networks. We improve earlier versions of this technique by incorporating periodic boundary conditions, including criteria to limit the maximum range of pair-wise calculations and suggesting methods to constrain models to match field data. Assuming that the host rock is isotropic and homogeneous, this method produces orthogonal sets of fractures, a pattern that is commonly observed during basin formation or subsidence. This shows how the method can be utilized to provide constraints with a physical basis to facilitate the development of fracture models. We also outline how the fracture model can be converted into an anisotropic seismic velocity model to compute synthetic seismograms for reservoir characterization applications.

Ice sheet advance, dynamics, and decay configurations: evidence from west central Scotland

A 3700-km 2 area adjacent to the Firth of Clyde, Scotland, is examined to constrain the development and dynamics of the western central sector of the last British and Irish Ice Sheet. Results from geomorphological mapping, lithostratigraphic investigations, three-dimensional geological modelling and field observations are combined to produce an empirically constrained, five-stage conceptual model of ice sheet evolution. (A) Previously published dates on interstadial organic deposits and mammalian fossils suggest that the Main Late Devensian (MLD) (MIS 2) glaciation of central Scotland began after 35 ka cal BP. During build-up, ice advanced from the western Scottish Highlands into the Clyde and Ayrshire basins. Glaciomarine muds and shelly deposits scavenged from the Firth of Clyde were redeposited widely as shelly tills and glacial rafts. Ice advance against reverse slopes generated, and subsequently overtopped, ice-marginal sediment accumulations. We hypothesise that some of these formed pre-cursor ridges which were moulded into suites of ribbed moraine during the glacial cycle. (B) Sustained stadial conditions at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (c 30–25 ka cal BP) resulted in development of a major dispersal centre over the Firth of Clyde and Southern Uplands. This dispersal centre locally preserved previously formed subglacial bedforms, and fed a wide corridor of fast-flowing ice east towards the Firth of Forth. (C) Initial deglaciation promoted a substantial re-configuration of the ice surface, with enhanced westward drawdown into the outer Firth of Clyde and eastward migration of an ice divide towards the Clyde-Forth watershed. (D) Renewed ice sheet thickening over the Firth of Clyde may have accompanied growth of the Irish Ice Sheet during the Killard Point Stadial (c 17.1–15.2 ka cal BP); it was associated with limited bed modification. Subsequent ice sheet retreat was characterised by substantial meltwater production, ponding and erosion. (E) Late stages of MLD ice sheet retreat were punctuated by one or more significant ice margin oscillations. Discovery of De Geer moraines at the site of a former proglacial lake in western Ayrshire allows glacier flow at the ice margin to be approximated as ≤290 m a −1 during one such oscillation. Such velocities were probably enabled by basal sliding and shallow sediment deformation. At this stage those parts of the MLD ice sheet margin that were grounded in the Firth of Clyde were extremely vulnerable to collapse. Final disintegration of glacier ice in the Clyde basin probably occurred early in the Lateglacial Interstadial (Greenland Interstadial-1), coinciding with marine incursion to c 40 m above present day sea level.

Slip partitioning in the northeast Pamir–Tian Shan convergence zone

Based on a detailed analysis of satellite imagery combined with field geologic and geomorphic observations, we have mapped late Cenozoic folds and faults in the northeastern Pamir–Tian Shan convergence zone. It is a unique example to understand intracontinental ongoing mountain building within India–Eurasia collision system. In the front of northeastern Pamir, our investigations reveal that the NW-WNW-trending folds display a right-stepping en echelon pattern and NW-WNW-striking faults are mainly characterized by south-dipping thrusts with an extensive dextral strike-slip component. Drainage systems across the active faults show a systematic right-lateral offset. In contrast, structural style of the ENE trending fold-and-thrust belts are predominated by south–north directed shortening southwest of the Tian Shan. Our results also infer that oblique thrusting accommodates as long-term dextral slip rate of ca. 4.0 mm/yr during the late Cenozoic time north of the Pamir topographic front. Tectono-stratigraphic evidence suggests that the tectonic deformation was initiated at ca. 3–5 Ma in the study area. We suggest that intracontinental mountain building in the Pamir–Tian Shan convergence zone should be attributed to the crustal shortening caused by folding and thrusting as well as block rotation related to strike-slip faulting within the India–Eurasia collision system.

An investigation of the active tectonics in central-eastern mainland Greece with imaging and decomposition of topographic and aeromagnetic data

We report the results of a joint analysis of aeromagnetic, topographic and tectonic data in central-eastern mainland Greece. The emphasis of the analysis is placed on the detection of coherent lineations (discontinuities), collocated and correlated with faulting structures detected by geological field observation. To this effect, edge detection and image enhancement were applied to digital aeromagnetic anomaly maps and digital elevation models, comprising bidirectional differentiation, wavelet transformation (imaging) and spatial decomposition/reconstruction in the wavenumber domain. The analysis facilitated the detection of significant topographic lineaments with NNE–SSW, ENE–WSW and ESE–WNW orientations. Respectively, the aeromagnetic data exhibit two families of significant NE–SW, and one family of ESE–WNW lineaments. The major aeromagnetic and topographic lineaments coincide and have comparable width scales of the order of 2–3 km, indicating that they are produced by significant discontinuities in the upper crust. The kinematics of the NE–SW faults varies between oblique-slip and strike-slip. These faults affect Neogene to Late Quaternary deposits and have been responsible for the formation of transverse depressions and horsts. This is also corroborated by focal plane solutions from small earthquakes recorded by local networks. The nature of these structures is not yet clear. However, they have been detected by diverse methodologies, they have considerable extent and are apparently active. These attributes suggest that they may possibly be related to the propagation and diffusion of the North Anatolian and North Aegean fault systems into the Greek mainland.

Characterization of blowholes as radon and thoron sources in the volcanic region of La Garrotxa, Spain

In the volcanic region of La Garrotxa there are natural holes in the soil from which a flow of air can reach the outdoor/indoor environment. In a previous study, these holes (called blowholes) have been found to have a big influence on indoor radon levels in a couple of houses. This finding triggered the interest to characterize these blowholes as radon/thoron sources. In this work, a total of 26 holes have been identified and characterized by geological field observations and by measuring their dimensions, air speed, temperature, humidity, and radon and thoron concentrations. Radon has been measured with passive (Makrofol) and active detectors (monitors PRASSI and RAD 7, being the latter used also to measure thoron). One of the indoor blowholes has been studied in detail and important temporal variations have been found, showing that radon levels are clearly correlated with the soil-outdoor temperature difference. There is not a significant radiological risk for the inhabitants and workers of the studied homes and workplaces with indoor blowholes. However, taking into account that in warm seasons buildings with blowholes in pyroclastic materials from volcanoes or in volcanic scoria under a compact lava flow may have high indoor radon levels (up to 1.5 kBq m −3) we conclude that volcanic regions with similar geological features and with presence of blowholes should be considered as areas with a potential radon/thoron radiological risk.

New data on the stratigraphy and depositional environment for Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous deposits of the Stolbovoi Island (New Siberian Islands)

The section of Mesozoic terrigenous deposits over 1200 m thick has been described, and a new geological map of the Stolbovoi Island southern half has been compiled. The inference has been made that the sedimentary sequence represents a single uniform turbidite complex, which is indivisible into lithological units and which does not show transition to shallow-marine facies either in the visible foot section or visible roof section. The complex accumulated in the foreland basin emerged on the margin of the Novosibirsk-Chukchi continental block during the Anyuian orogeny. The presence of upper Volgian deposits (Upper Jurassic) with a visible thickness of 640 m, Berriasian (Ryazanian) deposits about 100-m thick, and lower Valanginian deposits with a visible thickness of ∼200 m has been established on the basis of identification of fossils represented by remains of bivalve mollusks (the genus Buchia). Finds of upper Volgian buchias in the southeastern part of the island are inconsistent with field geological observations of the sequence of deposits. Paleontological data acquired for the island southern part suggest the presence of a transverse thrust fault, along which upper Volgian rocks were thrust over lower Neocomian rocks. The possibility of another interpretation of the data has also been considered. The correlation of the Buchia Beds of the Stolbovoi Island, Nordvik Peninsula, the basin of the Anyui River, and northern California has been carried out. The inference about a close relationship between the biota of the Stolbovoi Island and the North Pacific paleobiogeographic realm has been drawn.

MT measurements in the western part of the Paleoproterozoic Skellefte Ore District, Northern Sweden: A contribution to an integrated geophysical study

A 2D conductivity model of the Kristineberg area in the Skellefte Ore District, Northern Sweden, has been derived from new magnetotelluric measurements. This complements an intensive geophysical and geological study of the area, including reflection seismics, gravity and aeromagnetic data modeling as well as geological field observations. In a pilot study, 20 broadband MT stations were installed in May 2007 along a 20 km long north–south profile. Dimensionality analysis shows that a 2D interpretation of the data is justified, although the presumed geoelectric strike direction of N75°E is not consistent over the whole profile. The new conductivity model of the upper crust agrees well with the results from the seismic studies. Interpreting both independent data sets confirms the major features from the previous model, such as the thickness of the Revsund granites in the south, the existence of a structural basement with metasedimentary origin, and gives new insight into the nature of the volcanic rocks and their possible mineral content.

What Does Control Earthquake Ruptures and Dynamic Faulting? A Review of Different Competing Mechanisms

The fault weakening occurring during an earthquake and the temporal evolution of the traction on a seismogenic fault depend on several physical mechanisms, potentially concurrent and interacting. Recent laboratory experiments and geological field observations of natural faults revealed the presence, and sometime the coexistence, of thermally activated processes (such as thermal pressurization of pore fluids, melting of gouge and rocks, material property changes, thermally-induced chemical environment evolution), elasto-dynamic lubrication, porosity and permeability evolution, gouge fragmentation and wear, etc. In this paper, by reviewing in a unifying sketch all possible chemico-physical mechanisms that can affect the traction evolution, we suggest how they can be incorporated in a realistic fault governing equation. We will also show that simplified theoretical models that idealistically neglect these phenomena appear to be inadequate to describe as realistically as possible the details of breakdown process (i.e., the stress release) and the consequent high frequency seismic wave radiation. Quantitative estimates show that in most cases the incorporation of such nonlinear phenomena has significant, often dramatic, effects on the fault weakening and on the dynamic rupture propagation. The range of variability of the value of some parameters, the uncertainties in the relative weight of the various competing mechanisms, and the difference in their characteristic length and time scales sometime indicate that the formulation of a realistic governing law still requires joint efforts from theoretical models, laboratory experiments and field observations.

Geological and Seismological Field Observations in the Epicentral Region of the 27 September 2003 Mw 7.2 Gorny Altay Earthquake (Russia)

Abstract The M w 7.2 Altay (Chuya) earthquake of 27 September 2003 that occurred in Gorny Altay (southern Siberia, Russia) is the first event of this magnitude to occur in the region in historical time. The 60 km long surface ruptures of the right-lateral event follow a preexisting but previously unmapped northwest–southeast fault trace along the northern slope of the North Chuya range. Additional secondary coseismic ruptures were also observed on adjacent faults. The earthquake triggered landslides, rock falls, and liquefaction, as well as destruction of houses and other construction in the Kurai and Chuya basins. The 2003 event induced several thousand aftershocks during the years after the mainshock that formed a cloud of epicenters aligned with the main coseismic rupture trace. The local earthquake tomography of the event source shows the correspondence between the fault trace at the surface and a long narrow low-velocity zone, penetrating vertically into the crust down to a depth of 15–17 km. If the three-dimensional (3D) geometry of the aftershock cloud approximates the ruptured fault plane at first order, then the fault is mainly vertical, or slightly southwest dipping, confirming the right-lateral-reverse kinematics of the fault, compatible with northeast–southwest shortening accommodated by a combination of right-lateral and thrust faults. Together with the average surface displacement observed in the field ( Δu 1–2 m), the surface of the fault plane determined by the aftershocks distribution (80×17 km) gives a magnitude M w ∼7.2, in good agreement with the Harvard determination. Natural exposures produced by the 2003 surface faulting, together with previous paleoseismic observations across the primary and secondary earthquake-induced features, have revealed the occurrence of several strong events (magnitudes about 7–8) during the last 5000 yr. The characteristics of the Altay event suggest that the Gorny Altay region, similar to Mongolia and Gobi, is characterized by large infrequent M 7–8 earthquakes along faults moving at rates of a few mm/yr or less.

Geotechnical mapping for alluvial fan deposits controlled by active faults: a case study in the Erzurum, NE Turkey

Erzurum, the biggest city of Eastern Anatolia Region in the Turkey, is located in Karasu Plain. Karasu Plain, located on the central segment of the Erzurum Fault Zone, is an intermountain sedimentary basin with a Miocene-Quaternary volcanic basement, andesitic-basaltic lava flows and fissure eruptions of basaltic lava. It was filled in the early Quaternary by lacustrine fan-delta deposits. The basin is characterized by NNE-SSW trending sinistral wrench faults on its eastern margin and ENE-WSW trending reverse faults on its southern margin. Both systems of active faults intersect very near to Erzurum, which is considered to be the most likely site for the epicenter of a probable future large earthquake. Historical records of destructive earthquakes, morphotectonic features formed by paleo-seismic events and instrument seismic data of region indicate to a very high regional seismicity. The residential areas of Erzurum are located on thick alluvial fan deposits forming under the control of faults on the central segment of the Erzurum Fault Zone, which is one of the most active fault belts of the East Anatolian Region. Over time, the housing estates of city such as Yenisehir and Yildizkent have been expanded toward to the west and southwest part of Erzurum as a consequence of rapid and massive construction during the last 30 years. Geotechnical investigation has therefore been undertaken the residential areas of city in order to characterize geotechnical properties over the varied lithologies examine the potential for geotechnical mapping and assess the foundation conditions of the present and future settlement areas. The geological field observations and operations have been performed to make the soil sampling and characterize the lateral and vertical changes in thickness of the alluvial deposits in trenches, excavations and deep holes with 6–12 m sections. The soil samples have been subjected to a series of tests under laboratory conditions to obtain physical and mechanical properties. Furthermore, the standard penetration tests have been applied to the soils under field conditions. The geological field observations, geotechnical data and distribution of bearing capacity have been considered for the geotechnical mapping. Based on the geotechnical map, there are five geotechnical zones distinguished in the study area.