Geographical Directions Research Articles

Level of natural radiation in the closed space of the public schools in Hamadan, Iran (2015-2016)

Since human beings are constantly exposed to environmentalionizing radiations, the measurement of natural background radiations is of utmost importance. This cross-sectional, descriptive study aimed to measure the annual effective dose of natural background radiation in 93 schools in two districts of Hamadan, Iran in the winter, spring, and autumn of 2015-2016. Among the public schools in Hamadan, the schools located in district one with 1.41±0.079 mSv and district two with 0.955±0.04 mSv had the highest and lowest mean equivalent annual dose caused by natural radiation (γ rays) in a closed space, respectively. The mean equivalent annual dose caused by natural radiation in the closed space of all the public schools in districts one and two of Hamadan was estimated at 1.20±0.07 mSv as separated by geographical directions. In addition, the highest mean dose caused by natural gamma rays in the closed space of the school buildings constructed for more and less than 40 years was 1.42±0.22 and 1.42±0.15 mSv, respectively, and the rate of the effective annual dose of the public schools in Hamadan was determined to be 0.83 mSv as separated by district. The equivalent effective annual dose and risk of gamma ray cancer in the lifespan of the public school students in Hamadan was higher than the global average.

Vulnerability Assessment and Modelling of Urban Growth Using Data Envelopment Analysis

Determining the vulnerability of urban areas is one of the requirements that must be met before urban development to manage urban growth efficiently. This study aims to assess the vulnerability of urban areas using the data envelopment analysis method. We determined the physical growth of Yazd City in central Iran, utilizing the satellite images of 1976, 1984, 1993, 2006, and 2013. We studied the city’s growth in three districts as well as four different geographical directions in different years. Afterwards, this study identified the geomorphological indicators influential on the development of the districts. The constant return to scale additive model was designed and proposed to investigate different districts’ vulnerability and identify the areas with the highest and lowest vulnerability degrees. Finally, we introduced the districts with the least vulnerability as a pattern for the sustainable growth of the city. The modelling results show that District 2 in 1976 had the highest vulnerability ( $${{Z}}_{0}^{*} = 0$$ ). Despite having the smallest area (input), this district has the highest unsuitable performance in terms of the geomorphological indicators. The performance of other units was found appropriate. We compared Districts 2 and 3 with District 1 from the year 2013. Thus, the decision-making units reveals that Districts 2 and 3 in 2013 have the rank of 14 and 13, respectively, while District 1 has 8 with the lowest vulnerability of growth. It recognized that District 1 has the highest suitability performance and better sustainability than two other districts. Therefore, we recommend it to the government for the sustainable and smart growth of the city considering Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)-11.

National surveillance on Enterobius vermicularis infections among children at ages of 3 to 9 years in China from 2016 to 2018

To understand the epidemic status of Enterobius vermicularis infections among children aged 3 to 9 years in China, so as to provide scientific basis for the formulation of the prevention and control strategies for enterobiasis. The national surveillance of enterobiasis was performed in 736 national surveillance sites (counties) from 30 provinces (municipalities/autonomous regions) in China from 2016 to 2018. All surveillance sites were classified into parts according to the geographical directions, including the eastern, western, southern, northern and middle parts, and a township was randomly selected from each part. Then, an administrative village was randomly selected from the township, and 200 permanent residents at ages of over 3 years living in the administrative village were randomly selected using the cluster sampling method. A total of 1 000 residents were examined in each surveillance site. E. vermicularis infections were detected among children at ages of 3 to 9 years using the modified Kato-Katz technique and the adhesive cellophane-tape perianal swab method, and the prevalence of infections was calculated and compared. The prevalence of E. vermicularis infections was 2.50%, 2.84% and 2.46% among children at ages of 3 to 9 years in the 736 surveillance sites from 30 provinces (municipalities/autonomous regions) in China from 2016 to 2018, and there was no gender-specific prevalence of E. vermicularis infections (P > 0.05). Enterobiasis was main prevalent in the southern and southwestern part of China (Jiangxi, Guangxi, Guangdong, Sichuan, Fujian, Chongqing and Hainan), with 5.00% prevalence and greater, and the highest prevalence was seen in Jiangxi and Guangxi for successive 3 years. In addition, the prevalence of E. vermicularis infections was higher in children with the Han ethnicity than in those with the minority ethnicity, and a high prevalence was found in children at ages of 4 to 7 years, and a low prevalence seen in children at ages of 3, 8 and 9 years. The prevalences of E. vermicularis infections have not changed much among children at ages of 3 to 9 years in China from 2016 to 2018, and high prevalence is seen in southern and southwestern China, which should be given a high priority.

Application of generalized Hurst dimension rose plot in terrain altitude analysis

This paper presents sound innovations in the processes for geographical data collection and data evaluation for multiscale analysis of terrain altitude. Data sets were collected along several transects, as well as different geographical directions, in three dissimilar zones of Spain, for the sake of Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA) proper trade off. Used terrain data base consists of a 1003 × 1003-pixel matrix, with 1-m pixel resolution, provided by Official Spanish GIS.For multiscale terrain altitude analysis, generalized Hurst dimensions (H(q)) and multifractality index (ΔH(q)) were calculated on several transects crossing the areas under study. The results show, for all cases, a self-affine characteristic within most of the scale range, as well as a persistent character and a variable value of ΔH(q). Directionality analysis results, for both parameters, when represented by means of a rose plot, clearly demonstrate the differences in the scaling behavior along and across mountains, natural vegetation and crop lands and it could define a new metric for the landscape. Each of the three geographical areas covered by current statement of work clearly shows its particular anisotropy, this situation will be verified using a wider geographical data base in forthcoming works.

Ukrainian Migration to Russia: Results and Prospects

The paper deals with the analysis of Ukrainian migration into Russia, which has been remaining an important factor in Russia’s development during the post- Soviet period. Attraction of migrants with cultural characteristics similar to the native population makes it possible to simultaneously pursue two targets: promoting economic growth and preserving the nation’s cultural identity. Migrants from Ukraine are currently the only substantial source of potential migration into Russia that does not provoke a negative attitude among the Russian people. The paper provides an analysis of the main geographical directions of Ukrainian migration into Russia during the past eight years. These directions have proved to be resilient in spite of substantial changes of the socioeconomic conditions in both countries. It is shown that the “Ukrainian stream” demonstrates features common to international migration in other countries, at the same time having certain specifics, e.g. leaning toward big cities of the Russian South-West. The authors examine the distribution of migrants among the federal districts of Russia as well as among administrative centers and rural areas of receiving regions. The Ukrainian migration stream is considered to be the object of competition between Russian and Polish economic centers of gravity. In order for Russia to win in such a competition, the authors propose not to set an unrealistic goal of attracting Ukrainian migrants to the sparsely populated regions of Russia (e.g. the Far East), but rather to promote migration into regions which have already demonstrated their attractiveness for them, namely Belgorod, Voronezh and Krasnodar. In stimulating migration into these regions particular emphasis is to be made on the attraction of the Ukrainian youth, especially students. For that purpose, special programs targeting Ukrainian students should be elaborated at the universities of the Russian South-West.

РАЗВИТИЕ ВНЕШНЕЙ ТОРГОВЛИ РОССИИ И СТАВРОПОЛЬСКОГО КРАЯ В УСЛОВИЯХ ГЛОБАЛИЗАЦИИ МИРОВОГО РЫНКА САХАРА

The article analyzes the current state of the world sugar market: producing countries, exporting countries and importers of sugar industry products. The dynamics of exports to Russia and priority geographical directions for the sale of sugar are presented. The export potential of the sugar industry of the Stavropol Territory is examined: production dynamics, export deliveries to target countries of the Middle East and Southeast Asia. Problems are identified that impede the growth of sugar exports.

ПРИОРИТЕТЫ ИНТЕРНАЦИОНАЛИЗАЦИИ ВЫСШЕГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РЕСПУБЛИКИ БЕЛАРУСЬ И ЭКСПОРТ БЕЛОРУССКОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ

The research is aimed at identifying the peculiarities of higher education internationalization in the Republic of Belarus. The research objectives included the analysis of legislative and institutional sides of higher education internationalization and the evaluation of geographical priorities of higher education services export by Belarus. The research into higher education internationalization was initiated by Western researchers, including J. Knight, H. de Wit, P.G. Altbach, B. Leask, S. Robson, and others. However, the research into Belarusian higher education internationalization has started very recently and mostly covers the results of European projects in higher education conducted in Belarus. Therefore, the peculiarities and prospects of Belarusian higher education internationalization have not yet been considered sufficiently. Having analyzed the legislation in higher education, the authors concluded that the export of higher education became the priority of internationalization. Most policy documents set the aim of increasing the number of international students by improving the positions of Belarusian universities in international rankings and networking with foreign universities. Therefore, it may be concluded that Belarusian authorities interpret higher education internationalization from a very utilitarian point of view. Thus, it is not mainly aimed at improving the quality of higher education. Having considered the international students statistics the authors identified three geographical directions of Belarusian higher education export, namely Turkmenistan (the country providing almost half of international students in Belarus), China (the country of origin for most students receiving education abroad in the world), and Uzbekistan (the country that has significantly increased the number of students coming to Belarus recently). The geographical structure of Belarusian higher education export turned out to be very unbalanced because of the dominance of Turkmen students. However, Belarusian export of higher education to this country is now endangered by Turkmen educational policy hindering the outflow of school-leavers. Since Belarusian higher education has a very low ranking at Chinese labor market, the export of Belarusian higher education to China may grow but for a little only. Taking into account that the educational cooperation with Uzbekistan has activated recently, the export of Belarusian higher education to Uzbekistan is likely to increase within the following several years. Thus, the authors forecast the changes in geographical priorities of Belarusian higher education export. However, the advantages that made international students choose Belarus, namely stability and security, are endangered by the current political situation in the country. Therefore, the future of Belarusian export of higher education depends significantly on achieving fast political settlement.

Application of numerical techniques to the recognition of structural controls on porphyry Cu mineralization: a case study of Dehaj area, Central Iran

ABSTRACT This paper endeavours to evaluate the structural controls of porphyry copper mineralization in Dehaj area, Central Iran, using numerical techniques, an aim for which the various data types including the location of mineral deposits, stream sediment geochemical data and faults were employed. Initially, classical statistics and the concentration-area (C-A) fractal methods were applied to identify mineralization-related geochemical anomalies, revealing the superiority of fractal technique over the traditional methods employed. In addition, a rose diagram portraying the distribution of mineral locations was compared to the distribution and trends of faults using fractal and fry analyses, showing that the spatial pattern of porphyry copper deposits is closely linked to NW- and E-trending faults. In other words, the aforementioned structural trends were plausibly the chief geographical directions controlling the mineralization. The results of this study suggest that NW- and E-trending faults have plausibly operated as corridors for the transportation of ore-bearing fluids.

The method to annotate buildings with images from CCTV cameras with an intersecting field of view

Video surveillance and tracking systems help to increase the safety of human activity in a given area and improve detecting the geo-location of an observer (a swarm of drones, autopilot) in modern cities. This article proposes the method for determining the full or partial address (annotation) of buildings by using images from several CCTV cameras with an intersecting field of view. As input parameters, the method takes several images from surveillance cameras, their geographical coordinates and directions of the optical axes and the vector map of the area where the cameras are located. The outputs are annotations of buildings for the initial images. The proposed method allows solving the problem of georeferencing the video analytics system and improving the work of the surveillance and object tracking systems. The resulting annotations of buildings provide an opportunity to determine more accurately the situations with overlapping of the tracked objects with buildings and predict the probable paths of the objects. A lost object on one camera can be found by using annotations from other cameras, which field of view is not overlapped by this building. Besides, the proposed ap0070roach is sustainable to full or partial overlapping of buildings and allows solving to solve the problem in the absence of a detailed height map of the terrain and buildings. Also, the article researches the restrictions of the method. It is necessary to find an angle between two cameras, at which the best result can be achieved. That is, the method should return the correct addresses of all buildings visible in the image.

ФОРМИРОВАНИЕ КОМПЛЕКСНОГО ПОКАЗАТЕЛЯ ОЦЕНКИ РИСКА ДЛЯ ОПРЕДЕЛЕНИЯ ГЕОГРАФИЧЕСКИХ ПРИОРИТЕТОВ МЕЖДУНАРОДНОЙ СТРАТЕГИИ ЭЛЕКТРОЭНЕРГЕТИЧЕСКОЙ КОМПАНИИ

Цель: статья посвящена вопросам формирования комплексного показателя оценки риска для определения географических приоритетов в ходе разработки стратегии международной деятельности электроэнергетической компании. Обсуждение: авторы предполагают, что учитывая используемые методы формирования стратегии, основными характеристиками для определения географических приоритетов являются оценка странового риска и характеристика отраслевых показателей. Для получения полного представления об уровне риска в электроэнергетической отрасли стран авторами предложен современный подход к комплексной оценке риска: на основе анализа име-щихся методик оценки риска сформирован перечень показателей, характеризующих политическое и экономическое состояние страны, а также привлекательность электроэнергетической отрасли страны для инвестора. Результаты: авторами предложена модель формирования комплексного показателя оценки риска с использованием методов теории нечетких множеств, которая значительно упрощает процесс определения приоритетных географических направлений и сужает диапазон стран для дальнейшего анализа. В заключение статьи представлена часть полученных результатов.

WHY DOES CHINA NEED «ONE BELT, ONE ROAD» AND WHY CHINESE INITIATIVE CAN BE PUNISHED?

The Chinese initiative «One Belt, One Road» has a growing influence on the development of the global economy. As it progresses, it carries both new opportunities, risks, and challenges for concrete regions and countries. On this background, «One Belt, One Road» begins to encounter ambiguous perception and often with the opposition. This article is devoted to the analysis of this tangle of problems. The authors identify the main economic prerequisites for its occurrence; define economic and political goals, which can be achieved by China within its implementation, and also describe the main geographical directions of the initiative’s development. It’s noted that China began to experience competitive pressure from the USA and the EU, mainly in the form of countering Chinese economic expansion, as well as the anti-Chinese media campaign. Critical arguments for the Chinese initiative, as well as arguments in its favor, are presented and explored in the paper. Basing on the analysis of “pros” and “cons”, the authors come to the conclusion that the nature of the «One belt, One Road» is likely to be changed towards greater consideration of the interests of the hosting countries.

Estimation and Analysis of Cooling Load for Indian Subcontinent by CLD/SCL/CLF method at part load conditions

A total equivalent temperature difference (TETD) and cooling load temperature difference (CLTD) methods are developed in the excel spread sheets using Visual Basic Programming for calculating the cooling load for a building. The spread sheets are developed to eradicate the human error and time consuming task of manual calculations. TETD and CLTD methods programmed in spread sheets are easiest and fastest way to estimate the cooling loads as compared to that of the commercially available software’s. The TETD method estimates the peak value of the cooling load and CLTD is used to estimate the cooling load on an hourly basis. Cooling loads estimated using TETD method and CLTD method are validated against CARRIER software HAPv4.9. However, there is a marginal difference in the obtained cooling load values of the spread sheets and HAPv4.9. For selecting the air conditioning equipment for a building, the accurate cooling load calculations are required. For peak cooling load, the solar peak time at a given location is required. The present work deals with the analysis of Solar Peak Time for Indian Sub-Continent, by varying the solar time and geographical directions. The variation patterns as a result of heat gains due to occupants, equipment and lighting in the building are analysed on hourly basis using the CLTD method. Similarly, the variation patterns of cooling load due to variation in outdoor dry bulb temperature and relative humidity are obtained for different cities across India by considering the same room psychometric conditions, internal loads and maximum solar peak time. The TETD method always over predicts the estimated cooling load.

DETERMINANTS OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL COOPERATION IN THE SPACE FIELD WITH RUSSIA`S PARTICIPATION

The present stage of development of the international scientific and technical cooperation in the space industry has been investigated. The main shifts, happening in the geographical directions of the international scientific and technical cooperation in the space field have been considered. The potential, problems and the prospects of development of the international scientific and technical cooperation in the space field with the CIS countries have been studied. The perspective directions of its development with participation of Russia have been allocated; consequences of imposition of sanctions of foreign countries in the space field on development of scientific and technical cooperation have been analyzed; the role of the countries and regions in realization of strategic priorities of the Russian Federation in development of scientific and technical cooperation has been shown.

ІНТЕРАКТИВНЕ НАВЧАННЯ ГЕОГРАФІЧНИМ ДИСЦИПЛІНАМ ТА ФОРМУВАННЯ ЗА ЙОГО ДОПОМОГОЮ СПЕЦІАЛЬНИХ ПРОФЕСІЙНИХ КОМПЕТЕНТНОСТЕЙ У СТУДЕНТІВ ПЕДАГОГІЧНОГО НАПРЯМУ

The article examines the essence of the concept “special professional competence of students of the pedagogical high school”, studying on geographical and natural specialties and directions. The emphasis is placed on the consideration of the competences that are formed during the training of geographic disciplines of students of geographical and natural specialties and directions of the pedagogical high school. It should be noted that the positioning of the basic general and special professional profile (specialized) competences of the geography teacher is conditional. Under the special geographical competence of the teacher of geography we mean the integrative quality of the personality, manifested in the ability to solve typical problems, reflecting the connection of geographical science and practice with the goals, content and methods of teaching in the primary and secondary (profile) school. The theoretical bases of interactive learning and the methodology of using interactive technologies in the process of teaching to special geographic disciplines are analyzed. The conceptual apparatus of didactics and methods of teaching geography on terms related to interactivity in teaching are specified. The use of interactive methods as the basis for formation of special professional geographical competence of students of geographical and natural specialties and directions of the pedagogical high school is analyzed. In the methodical system of interactive learning for geographic disciplines, interactive methods act as ways of achieving goals-the formation of a special geographical competence and the content of training on the basis of pre-known specific patterns and mechanisms, that is, training based on the intensive interaction of subjects of the learning process with the educational environment of geographical education. The implementation of interactive training for geographic disciplines during classroom lessons, extra-curriculum and independent work of students according to the curriculum and programs of geographic educational disciplines, taking into account cognitive interests and professional orientation of students are considered.

Динаміка та структура зовнішньої торгівлі Радянської України у міжвоєнний період

The article is devoted to the historical and economic research of the dynamics and structure of Soviet Ukraine’s foreign trade activities in the 1920–1930’s. A large decrease in the intensity of Ukraine’s foreign trade during the period of «war communism» is revealed. The dynamics and structural changes of the domestic export-import flows by the Black Sea-Azov ports and land customs in the early 1920’s are characterized. In particular, the commodity structure of Ukraine’s foreign trade is analyzed, and the domination of its agrarian and raw nature components is revealed. The basic geographical directions of domestic freight flows are revealed. The intensity of Ukraine’s foreign trade operations during the NEP is investigated. The dominant role of Odessa and Nikolaev ports, as well as Shepetivska land customs house in domestic export and import trade is revealed. The structure of freight flows from the Ukrainian territory is analyzed. It is revealed that the main export items were grain, crop and livestock products, ores, wood and others. It was found out that the geographical structure of domestic foreign trade was limited to the countries of Western Europe at the stage of the new economic policy. Raw materials and food were exported there, and machinery, equipment and consumer goods were imported. The changes in physical volumes of Soviet Ukraine’s exports and imports during the first and second five year periods are characterized. The author emphasizes the diversified nature of the domestic export-import flows, while the dominant role of agricultural products and raw materials was preserved. Extension of geographical directions of domestic foreign trade ties is pointed out. It is proved that the absence of own statehood and the monopolization of the foreign trade by the Soviet government were important factors limiting the development of domestic economic potential.

난중일기에 기록된 안편도(발음도)의 지리적 위치에 관한 실증 연구

Most of the current administrative names and locations for the names of places in the Nanjung diary have since been confirmed. However, a disagreement ensued among translators or researchers over Anpyeon-do (Baleum-do) islet recorded in Admiral Yi Sun-Shin's diary. Anpyeon-do was first recorded in the diary on October 11, 1597. It is credited to be the location where Yi Sun-shin and Chosun Naval Fleet stayed when sailing along the Southwestern coast of the Korean Peninsula after the battle of Myeongnyang. However, Anpyeon-do’s exact geographical location has never been accurately confirmed. To accurately locate the islet, this study compared the direction and position of geographical locations observed in the Anpeon-do site match to actual geographical positions and directions. In addition, the direction and position of the geographical locations observed in the newly explored islands and mountains were evaluated with regard to how they correspond to the actual Anpeon-do. As a result, we concluded that the real location of Anpyeon-do recorded in the Nanjung diary is the Maebong mountain in Anjwa-do.

Ecological capability evaluation for afforestation and forest expansion using Geographic Information System (GIS) in management area of Caspian Sea.

Ecologicalcapabilityevaluation is referred to as evaluation of potential capability of land and determination of its natural land use. In this paper, ecological capability of Lille Basin in Lahijan was evaluated for afforestation and forest expansion using Geographical Information Systems (GIS). For this purpose, information layers (slope, elevation, geographical directions, temperature, rainfall, humidity, soil type, and canopy cover) were prepared by digitizing the data obtained from concerned organizations. First, the layers were prepared based on coordinate systems and pixel value. Then, they were standardized using fuzzy membership functions. The evaluation criteria were prioritized with regard to expert opinion, and by using multi-criteria evaluation method (MCE) and analysis of hierarchic process (AHP), and the final weight of each criterion was determined. The weight for 8 criteria including elevation, soil type, canopy cover (%), directions, slope, temperature, humidity, rainfall were 0.330, 0.210, 0.128, 0.117, 0.076, 0.054, 0.046 and 0.210, respectively. According to these weights, elevation has the highest value and the slope is the lowest. The results suggest that ecological capability exhibits sensitivity to variations of different criteria and its distribution is directly correlated to ecological factors especially climatic and physiographical ones. The incompatibility index (0.09) also indicated that the weights were logical. Then valuation of the maps performed. Finally, based on these values, capabilities of each environmental unit were identified and potentials of the area for afforestation were determined in five capability classes.

Investigating the deformability of grouted rock mass under static and dynamic loading conditions

One of the remedial techniques to strengthen fractured rock mass is the grouting method. There are several direct and indirect methods to investigate the mechanical properties of a fractured rock mass. Among other indirect numerical methods, the discrete fracture network-discrete element method (DFN-DEM) encompasses a more realistic fracture pattern and takes into account the mechanical properties of both intact and rock joints and their interactions. A sensitivity analysis on the effect of joint stiffness ratios (JKn/JKs) and grouting grades with water-to-cement (W:C) ratios of 1:1 and 2:1 on different DFN realizations with different sizes and in various directions were conducted. The deformability moduli of natural and grouted models and representative elementary volume (REV) of models were approximated under static and dynamic loadings. The results show that, in natural and grouted models, the effects of the considered JKn/JKs ratios on the deformability moduli in different geographical directions are smaller than 15%. If models are subjected to dynamic loading, horizontal moduli are increased by 25% compared to static loading, while in grouted models, they do not vary significantly. Under static loading and grouted models with a W:C ratio of 1:1 slurry, the maximum and minimum horizontal deformability moduli are recorded in the NW-SE and NE-SW directions with improvement rates of 103% and 54%, respectively. However, in grouting with diluted slurry, the improvement ratios in almost all directions are 105% and 60% in the horizontal and vertical deformability moduli, respectively. This condition is also seen under dynamic loading, and weak grout has a better improvement ratio compared to the strong slurry. Grouting causes a decrease in the anisotropy of deformability moduli, particularly under dynamic loading.

The role of charcoal disease and wood borers on Quercus brantii Lindl. decline under different physiographical conditions

Oak decline is an expression describing death and drying up of oak trees. The present research evaluated the relationship between various geographical directions and altitude and some factors predisposing Persian oak (Quercus brantii Lindl.) decline, such as charcoal disease and oak wood boring insects in a 100 hectares area of the Shurabad forests in Lorestan Province of Iran. A 200 by 200 m sampling network was first designed on a regular-random (systematic) basis, and the trees were sampled from 1500-m2 circular plots. Information including hillside direction, altitude, infection site (on tree crown or on trunk), type of infection (charcoal disease or wood borers), crown vigor, and heights of the infection sites on the trees was recorded in each sample plot. Results indicated the significant relationships of infection type and severity with altitude, geographical direction, slope, and location of the sample plot at the significance level of 5%. Wood borers were the most common cause of infection. There was very little attack by charcoal disease in the study area. Most diseased trees were in the valley, in a northerly direction, at the 1101–1150 m elevation class and the 41–50% slope class. There were very few healthy trees in the study area, and most of them were on the ridges, in a southwesterly direction, at the 1151–1200 m altitude class and the 11–20% slope class.

فكرة دولة إسلامية نموذجية عند محمد رشيد رضا

Mohammed Rashid Ridha (1865-1935) is one of the most prominent pioneers of the reform movement in the Islamic world in the modern age. He tried to reform of the Ummah Affairs In order to standoff of the West challenges. Rashid Ridha lived in a difficult period of Islamic History, the last of the Othman Empire. This period of time was marked by many transitions in the history of the Ottoman Empire, and contributed to the shaping of its features and the determination of its political, cultural and geographical directions. All these factors led to the dissolution of the unity of the Muslims and the disruption of their geography, which was unified. This is the atmosphere in which Rashid Ridha respired an atmosphere that enabled him to realize his position as a reformer, making him feel as a human being found in this crisis.