Sponge Genus Research Articles

Two new 4-methylidene containing steroids, craterol A and B, from the New Zealand two sponge association between Stelletta crater and Desmacella dendyi

NMR-directed investigation of the two sponge association between Stelletta crater and Desmacella dendyi has resulted in the isolation of two new members of the rare 4-methylidene class of sterols. Craterol A (1) and B (2) represent the first examples of natural products reported from the species S. crater. The isolation of these compounds challenges the role of 4-methylidene sterols as chemotaxonomic markers for the sponge genus Theonella.

Pangenomic comparison of globally distributed Poribacteria associated with sponge hosts and marine particles.

Candidatus Poribacteria is a little-known bacterial phylum, previously characterized by partial genomes from a single sponge host, but never isolated in culture. We have reconstructed multiple genome sequences from four different sponge genera and compared them to recently reported, uncharacterized Poribacteria genomes from the open ocean, discovering shared and unique functional characteristics. Two distinct, habitat-linked taxonomic lineages were identified, designated Entoporibacteria (sponge-associated) and Pelagiporibacteria (free-living). These lineages differed in flagellar motility and chemotaxis genes unique to Pelagiporibacteria, and highly expanded families of restriction endonucleases, DNA methylases, transposases, CRISPR repeats, and toxin-antitoxin gene pairs in Entoporibacteria. Both lineages shared pathways for facultative anaerobic metabolism, denitrification, fermentation, organosulfur compound utilization, type IV pili, cellulosomes, and bacterial proteosomes. Unexpectedly, many features characteristic of eukaryotic host association were also shared, including genes encoding the synthesis of eukaryotic-like cell adhesion molecules, extracellular matrix digestive enzymes, phosphoinositol-linked membrane glycolipids, and exopolysaccharide capsules. Complete Poribacteria 16S rRNA gene sequences were found to contain multiple mismatches to "universal" 16S rRNA gene primer sets, substantiating concerns about potential amplification failures in previous studies. A newly designed primer set corrects these mismatches, enabling more accurate assessment of Poribacteria abundance in diverse marine habitats where it may have previously been overlooked.

A new species of the genus Intoshella Darboux, 1899 (Polychaeta: Polynoidae) commensal with a deep-sea sponge from a seamount near the Mariana Trench

A new species of the polynoid genus Intoshella Darboux, 1899 was found inside a deep-sea hexactinellid sponge collected by the ROV ‘Faxian’ from a seamount near the Mariana Trench at a depth of 890 m. Morphologically, Intoshella dictyaulus sp. nov. differs from the congeners in having 18 pairs of elytra, neurochaetae with both unidentate and bidentate tips, and elytral margin without papillae and surface without microtubercles. It is the first record of the association between Intoshella and the deep-sea hexactinellid sponge genus Dictyaulus Schulze, 1896. Additionally, based on COI and 18S rRNA gene sequences of the new species, the systematic status of Intoshella was explored through molecular phylogenetic approach.

Sponge grounds of Artemisina (Porifera, Demospongiae) in the Iberian Peninsula, ecological characterization by ROV techniques.

Artemisina Vosmaer, 1885 is a poecilosclerid microcionoid sponge genus with 20 valid species, seven of which have been recorded in the Atlantic Ocean.The present study describes Artemisina sponge grounds in Iberia Peninsula. A. transiens is a sponge described in 1890 by Topsent in Galicia (Spain); A. hispanica was also collected in the north of Spain by Ferrer-Hernández (1917); World Porifera Database (WPD) considers at the moment both mushroom-shaped species as synonyms (van Soest et al., 2018), but we have only been able to check the types of A. hispanica. The studied samples were collected in Somos Llungo station and they correspond clearly to those described as A. hispanica by Ferrer-Hernández (1917) and it presents differences in the skeleton with respet to description of A. transiens in the literture. There are no more records after 1917 and there are no data of ecological characterisation nor is there a detailed description of its skeletal composition with Scanning Electron Microscopy. In the previous records the formation of sponge grounds of these species was not known. Oceana, the largest international organization focused solely on protecting the world's oceans, has recorded the habitat of Artemisina in Atlantic and Cantabrian waters during a series of ROV cruises for the identification of marine areas with high ecological value that need protection. Its life conditions and associated fauna are described from direct observations for the first time.

Targeted Isolation of Tsitsikammamines from the Antarctic Deep-Sea Sponge Latrunculia biformis by Molecular Networking and Anticancer Activity.

The Antarctic deep-sea sponge Latrunculia (Latrunculia) biformis Kirkpatrick, 1908 (Class Demospongiae Sollas, Order Poecilosclerida Topsent, Latrunculiidae Topsent) was selected for chemical analyses due to its potent anticancer activity. Metabolomic analysis of its crude extract by HRMS/MS-based molecular networking showed the presence of several clusters of pyrroloiminoquinone alkaloids, i.e., discorhabdin and epinardin-type brominated pyridopyrroloquinolines and tsitsikammamines, the non-brominated bis-pyrroloiminoquinones. Molecular networking approach combined with a bioactivity-guided isolation led to the targeted isolation of the known pyrroloiminoquinone tsitsikammamine A (1) and its new analog 16,17-dehydrotsitsikammamine A (2). The chemical structures of the compounds 1 and 2 were elucidated by spectroscopic analysis (one-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional (2D) NMR, HR-ESIMS). Due to minute amounts, molecular modeling and docking was used to assess potential affinities to potential targets of the isolated compounds, including DNA intercalation, topoisomerase I-II, and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase enzymes. Tsitsikammamines represent a small class of pyrroloiminoquinone alkaloids that have only previously been reported from the South African sponge genus Tsitsikamma Samaai & Kelly and an Australian species of the sponge genus Zyzzya de Laubenfels. This is the first report of tsitsikammamines from the genus Latrunculia du Bocage and the successful application of molecular networking in the identification of comprehensive chemical inventory of L. biformis followed by targeted isolation of new molecules. This study highlights the high productivity of secondary metabolites of Latrunculia sponges and may shed new light on their biosynthetic origin and chemotaxonomy.

Descriptions of new sponge species and genus, including aspiculate Plakinidae, overturn the Homoscleromorpha classification

Among the Porifera, the taxonomy and systematics of Homoscleromorpha is one of the most challenging. Over the last two decades, this class and its single order Homosclerophorida have seen a high rate of new descriptions and phylogenetic investigations which have led to the resurrection of two well-supported families, defined as the `spiculate' Plakinidae and the `aspiculate' Oscarellidae. In recent years, the development of an integrative taxonomic approach and the exploration of new marine ecosystems have revealed an even higher diversity of Homoscleromorpha and highlighted the importance of complementary datasets (cytological, biochemical and molecular) to better explain the phylogenetic classification. Using this integrative approach, we here describe two new species of Plakinidae from submarine caves in the Caribbean Sea: Plakina arletensis sp. nov. and Aspiculophora madinina gen. nov. sp. nov., the latter being aspiculate with an unusually well-developed collagen layer in its mesohyl and an abundant and diverse prokaryote community. The recently described Oscarella nathaliae was reassigned to Plakina on the basis of new molecular data and a careful re-examination of morphological characters. Thus, Plakina nathaliae comb. nov. and A. madinina are the first aspiculate representatives of Plakinidae and indicate the need for a detailed re-examination of Homoscleromorpha using this integrative taxonomic approach. (C) 2017 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2017

Kaviengella jeffkinchi, a new genus and species of symbiotic shrimp (Crustacea: Decapoda: Palaemonidae) from Papua New Guinea.

A very small adult specimen of symbiotic palaemonid shrimp collected from Kavieng Lagoon, N.W. New Ireland Island, Papua New Guinea, is described as a new genus and species. Due to the slender subcylindrical body, reduced rostrum, elongated eyes and distolaterally produced uropodal exopods, the new species is somewhat similar to shrimps of the endosymbiotic sponge genus Nippontonia. Both second pereiopods are lost, but the specimen is unique by its bidentate scaphocerites, an apical corona of spiniform teeth on the mandibular molar process, five posterior telson cuspidate setae from which the median and intermediate ones are long, hooked, and the broadly spoon-like dactyli of the first pereiopods chelae with marginal pectination. Based on those characters, the new genus is without parallel among all symbiotic palaemonid shrimps. Its close phylogenetic relationship to the spongobiotic genera Nippontonia, Onycocaridella, and Thaumastocaris, is also confirmed by molecular comparison.

Dispersal and endemic diversification: Differences in non-lithistid spiculate sponge faunas between the Cambrian Explosion and the GOBE

Non-lithistid spiculate sponges were major components of Cambrian and Ordovician communities, but currently there is limited understanding of how sponge distribution patterns developed during the Cambrian Explosion and the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event (GOBE). We compiled data on Cambrian and Ordovician sponge occurrences from the literature and our own research. Sponge genera were widely distributed during the Cambrian Period, with broadly consistent assemblages between palaeocontinents, from different palaeolatitudes, and over a timespan of approximately 25Myr. Sponges exhibited a marked shift from cosmopolitan to highly endemic genera during the Tremadoc and later Ordovician. Surviving Cambrian genera continued to be very widespread, but taxa that originated during the Ordovician had much narrower geographic and environmental ranges, perhaps related to the origination of modern-style, patchy ecology. The cosmopolitanism of the Cambrian faunas is suggestive of rapid dispersal of recently evolved groups without competition from pre-existing sponges, suggesting that sponges had not diversified during the Precambrian. In contrast, the Ordovician record indicates local diversification against a complex ecological backdrop. Based on the ecological record of sponges, the Cambrian Explosion was a fundamentally different process to the GOBE.

A new species of the deep-sea spongicolid genus Spongicoloides (Crustacea, Decapoda, Stenopodidea) and a new species of the glass sponge genus Corbitella (Hexactinellida, Lyssacinosida, Euplectellidae) from a seamount near the Mariana Trench, with a novel commensal relationship between the two genera

A new species of the deep-sea spongicolid genus Spongicoloides Hansen, 1908 and a new species of the euplectellid genus Corbitella Gray, 1867 are described and illustrated based on the material recently collected by the remotely operated vehicle ‘Faxian’ at a seamount near the Mariana Trench. The new deep-sea spongicolid species can be distinguished from the congeneric species by a series of morphological features and the validity of the new species was supported by the molecular phylogenetic analysis. By means of the microscleres of regular hexasters and onychohexasters, the new sponge species can easily be distinguished from other Corbitella species. The new euplectellid sponge species is the host of the new spongicolid shrimp species: this is the first discovery of an association between Spongicoloides and Corbitella. The present study increases the species diversity of both genera as well as yielding new insight into the commensal relationships between spongicolid shrimps and their sponge hosts.

Isoaaptamine Induces T-47D Cells Apoptosis and Autophagy via Oxidative Stress.

Aaptos is a genus of marine sponge which belongs to Suberitidae and is distributed in tropical and subtropical oceans. Bioactivity-guided fractionation of Aaptos sp. methanolic extract resulted in the isolation of aaptamine, demethyloxyaaptamine, and isoaaptamine. The cytotoxic activity of the isolated compounds was evaluated revealing that isoaaptamine exhibited potent cytotoxic activity against breast cancer T-47D cells. In a concentration-dependent manner, isoaaptamine inhibited the growth of T-47D cells as indicated by short-(MTT) and long-term (colony formation) anti-proliferative assays. The cytotoxic effect of isoaaptamine was mediated through apoptosis as indicated by DNA ladder formation, caspase-7 activation, XIAP inhibition and PARP cleavage. Transmission electron microscopy and flow cytometric analysis using acridine orange dye indicated that isoaaptamine treatment could induce T-47D cells autophagy. Immunoblot assays demonstrated that isoaaptamine treatment significantly activated autophagy marker proteins such as type II LC-3. In addition, isoaaptamine treatment enhanced the activation of DNA damage (γH2AX) and ER stress-related proteins (IRE1 α and BiP). Moreover, the use of isoaaptamine resulted in a significant increase in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as in the disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). The pretreatment of T-47D cells with an ROS scavenger, N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC), attenuated the apoptosis and MMP disruption induced by isoaaptamine up to 90%, and these effects were mediated by the disruption of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf 2)/p62 pathway. Taken together, these findings suggested that the cytotoxic effect of isoaaptamine is associated with the induction of apoptosis and autophagy through oxidative stress. Our data indicated that isoaaptamine represents an interesting drug lead in the war against breast cancer.

Morphological and molecular systematics of the ‘Monanchora arbuscula complex’ (Poecilosclerida : Crambeidae), with the description of five new species and a biogeographic discussion of the genus in the Tropical Western Atlantic

Monanchora Carter, 1883 is a genus of shallow-water marine sponges comprising 16 species distributed worldwide, two of them in the Tropical Western Atlantic (TWA): M. arbuscula (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864) and M. brasiliensis Esteves, Lerner, Lôbo-Hajdu & Hajdu, 2012. The former species stands out as one of the most variable demosponges, and is very similar in spicule complement and in secondary metabolite chemistry to the Mediterranean/eastern Atlantic Crambe crambe (Schmidt, 1862), type species of Crambe Vosmaer, 1880. The aim of the present study was to revise the genus Monanchora in the TWA. In addition, we critically analyse the monophyly of Crambe and Monanchora. Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference analyses of 28S and 16S rRNA sequences of the latter genera, and a redescription of the ‘M. arbuscula complex’, revealed three species: M. arbuscula s.s., M. coccinea, sp. nov. and a new species of Acarnidae – Iophon parvachela, sp. nov. Three other new species from the TWA previously assigned to Monanchora were revealed by morphological analyses, and are also described: M. bahamensis, sp. nov., M. megasigmifera, sp. nov. and a new species of Chondropsidae – Batzella catarinensis, sp. nov. A key for species identification is provided. Our results suggest that the Eastern Brazil and Southeastern Brazil Ecoregions may represent centres of diversity for Monanchora in the TWA.

Host Specificity for Bacterial, Archaeal and Fungal Communities Determined for High- and Low-Microbial Abundance Sponge Species in Two Genera.

Sponges are engaged in intimate symbioses with a diversity of microorganisms from all three domains of life, namely Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya. Sponges have been well studied and categorized for their bacterial communities, some displaying a high microbial abundance (HMA), while others show low microbial abundance (LMA). However, the associated Archaea and Eukarya have remained relatively understudied. We assessed the bacterial, archaeal and eukaryotic diversities in the LMA sponge species Dysidea avara and Dysidea etheria by deep amplicon sequencing, and compared the results to those in the HMA sponges Aplysina aerophoba and Aplysina cauliformis. D. avara and A. aerophoba are sympatric in the Mediterranean Sea, while D. etheria and A. cauliformis are sympatric in the Caribbean Sea. The bacterial communities followed a host-specific pattern, with host species identity explaining most of the variation among samples. We identified OTUs shared by the Aplysina species that support a more ancient association of these microbes, before the split of the two species studied here. These shared OTUs are suitable targets for future studies of the microbial traits that mediate interactions with their hosts. Even though the archaeal communities were not as rich as the bacterial ones, we found a remarkable diversification and specificity of OTUs of the family Cenarchaeaceae and the genus Nitrosopumilus in all four sponge species studied. Similarly, the differences in fungal communities were driven by sponge identity. The structures of the communities of small eukaryotes such as dinophytes and ciliophores (alveolates), and stramenopiles, could not be explained by either sponge host, sponge genus or geographic location. Our analyses suggest that the host specificity that was previously described for sponge bacterial communities also extends to the archaeal and fungal communities, but not to other microbial eukaryotes.

Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from the Marine Sponge Genus Agelas.

The marine sponge genus Agelas comprises a rich reservoir of species and natural products with diverse chemical structures and biological properties with potential application in new drug development. This review for the first time summarized secondary metabolites from Agelas sponges discovered in the past 47 years together with their bioactive effects.

A new genus and species of Pheronematidae (Porifera: Hexactinellida: Amphidiscosida) from the western Pacific Ocean.

A new genus and species of glass sponge, belonging to the family Pheronematidae, is described from a single specimen collected from a seamount near Yap Trench in the western Pacific Ocean. Pheronemoides fungosus gen. et sp. nov. is described based on external morphology. In Pheronemoides gen. nov. the basalia are grouped in a broad semicircular tuft attaching to the dermal surface, and marginalia are located on the boundary between the atrial and dermal surfaces. Given the positions of the basalia and the marginalia, we recognize Pheronemoides as a transitional genus between Pheronema and Sericolophus. We also used a partial sequence of the 16S rDNA gene to confirm the validity of the new species designation.

A new genus and species of abyssal sponge commonly encrusting polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, East Pacific Ocean

The Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) in the East Pacific is a vast region targeted for deep-sea mineral exploration, for which there are almost no published taxonomic data. Here we describe Plenaster craigi gen. nov. sp. nov. from depths of ∼4000 m in the eastern CCZ polymetallic nodule province. Despite over 40 years of intense exploration in the area, we reveal that P. craigi sp. nov. is the most abundant sponge and the most common metazoan encrusting on nodules in our study area at the eastern CCZ. It has a mean abundance of 15.3 ± 8.9 individuals per m2 across 11 stations in a 30 × 30 km study site nested within the Singapore exploration area. The white encrusting sponge is filled with spheroxyasters with occasional styles protruding the surface. Plenaster craigi sp. nov. is morphologically similar to genera from three different families in two orders: Timea (Timeidae; Tethyida); Hemiasterella and Leptosastra (Hemiasterellidae; Tethyida); and Paratimea (Stelligeridae; Axinellida). However, based on the molecular (COI and 28S) phylogenetic trees generated in this study, P. craigi sp. nov. was located in the Order Axinellida and appeared to be distant to Timea, Hemiasterella, Leptosastra, and Paratimea. We propose a new genus for our material to be placed provisionally in the family Stelligeridae, as it is the only family in the order Axinellida whose members possess euasters. This provisional placement may change when sequences of the type specimens of these genera and advanced phylogenetic reconstruction methods become available in the future. However, we have shown clearly that Plenaster gen. nov. is unique and distinct from all currently known taxa. Plenaster craigi sp. nov. being an abundant metazoan encrusting on nodule and easily identified filter-feeding animal is a potentially indicator species for future mining impacts in the eastern CCZ, and possibly across the entire CCZ.LSID: urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:99D2DDBA-4643-4752-8C8A-AFF314E6B6E3

First records of Geodia demosponges from the New England seamounts, an opportunity to test the use of DNA mini-barcodes on museum specimens

We report the first records of the sponge genus Geodia (Demospongiae, Tetractinellida, Geodiidae) from the New England Seamounts and Muir Seamount, at lower bathyal depths. Nine specimens collected between 2000 and 2005 belong to two boreal species (Geodia macandrewii and Geodia barretti) and a temperate species (Geodia megastrella). These records extend the distributions of these deep-sea amphi-Atlantic species to the west. Most of these specimens were originally fixed in formalin, which substantially degraded the DNA. We nonetheless managed to sequence two cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) mini-barcodes: the universal mini-barcode at the 5′ end of the Folmer barcode (130 bp) and a newly proposed mini-barcode at the 3′ end of the Folmer barcode (296 bp). These mini-barcodes unambiguously confirmed our identifications. As an additional test, we also successfully sequenced these two mini-barcodes from the holotype of G. barretti, collected in 1855. We conclude by advocating the use of mini-barcodes on formalin-fixed or old specimens with degraded DNA.

Evolution of group I introns in Porifera: new evidence for intron mobility and implications for DNA barcoding

BackgroundMitochondrial introns intermit coding regions of genes and feature characteristic secondary structures and splicing mechanisms. In metazoans, mitochondrial introns have only been detected in sponges, cnidarians, placozoans and one annelid species. Within demosponges, group I and group II introns are present in six families. Based on different insertion sites within the cox1 gene and secondary structures, four types of group I and two types of group II introns are known, which can harbor up to three encoding homing endonuclease genes (HEG) of the LAGLIDADG family (group I) and/or reverse transcriptase (group II). However, only little is known about sponge intron mobility, transmission, and origin due to the lack of a comprehensive dataset. We analyzed the largest dataset on sponge mitochondrial group I introns to date: 95 specimens, from 11 different sponge genera which provided novel insights into the evolution of group I introns.ResultsFor the first time group I introns were detected in four genera of the sponge family Scleritodermidae (Scleritoderma, Microscleroderma, Aciculites, Setidium). We demonstrated that group I introns in sponges aggregate in the most conserved regions of cox1. We showed that co-occurrence of two introns in cox1 is unique among metazoans, but not uncommon in sponges. However, this combination always associates an active intron with a degenerating one. Earlier hypotheses of HGT were confirmed and for the first time VGT and secondary losses of introns conclusively demonstrated.ConclusionThis study validates the subclass Spirophorina (Tetractinellida) as an intron hotspot in sponges. Our analyses confirm that most sponge group I introns probably originated from fungi. DNA barcoding is discussed and the application of alternative primers suggested.

Potential foraging and aggregation zones of the Hawksbill Sea Turtle Eretmochelys imbricata (Testudines: Cheloniidae), near Marino Ballena National Park, Costa Rica

Groups of hawksbill sea turtles have been observed over the years, close to the coast of the Marino Ballena National Park. For this reason, in February 2015, we monitored its coast to identify aggregation sites. Turtle size estimates, and identification, were done by direct observation by the divers and from the boat. From February to December 2015, fourteen monitor records per sampling point were done and 41 turtles were recorded. They were 30cm - 80cm long and 59% of the individuals aggregated in one sample point. Five genera of sponges were registered as potential food: Haliclona sp, Spirastrella sp, Mycale sp, Aplyscina sp and Axinella sp and one tunicate, Rhopalaea birkelandi. The E. imbricata population was mainly composed of juveniles, and the turtles were found in zones where they have not been previously reported.

Molecular phylogenies confirm the presence of two cryptic Hemimycale species in the Mediterranean and reveal the polyphyly of the genera Crella and Hemimycale (Demospongiae: Poecilosclerida).

BackgroundSponges are particularly prone to hiding cryptic species as their paradigmatic plasticity often favors species phenotypic convergence as a result of adaptation to similar habitat conditions. Hemimycale is a sponge genus (Family Hymedesmiidae, Order Poecilosclerida) with four formally described species, from which only Hemimycale columella has been recorded in the Atlanto-Mediterranean basin, on shallow to 80 m deep bottoms. Contrasting biological features between shallow and deep individuals of Hemimycale columella suggested larger genetic differences than those expected between sponge populations. To assess whether shallow and deep populations indeed belong to different species, we performed a phylogenetic study of Hemimycale columella across the Mediterranean. We also included other Hemimycale and Crella species from the Red Sea, with the additional aim of clarifying the relationships of the genus Hemimycale.MethodsHemimycale columella was sampled across the Mediterranean, and Adriatic Seas. Hemimycale arabica and Crella cyathophora were collected from the Red Sea and Pacific. From two to three specimens per species and locality were extracted, amplified for Cytochrome C Oxidase I (COI) (M1–M6 partition), 18S rRNA, and 28S (D3–D5 partition) and sequenced. Sequences were aligned using Clustal W v.1.81. Phylogenetic trees were constructed under neighbor joining (NJ), Bayesian inference (BI), and maximum likelihood (ML) criteria as implemented in Geneious software 9.01. Moreover, spicules of the target species were observed through a Scanning Electron microscope.ResultsThe several phylogenetic reconstructions retrieved both Crella and Hemimycale polyphyletic. Strong differences in COI sequences indicated that C. cyathophora from the Red Sea might belong in a different genus, closer to Hemimycale arabica than to the Atlanto-Mediterranean Crella spp. Molecular and external morphological differences between Hemimycale arabica and the Atlanto-Mediterranean Hemimycale also suggest that Hemimycale arabica fit in a separate genus. On the other hand, the Atlanto-Mediterranean Crellidae appeared in 18S and 28S phylogenies as a sister group of the Atlanto-Mediterranean Hemimycale. Moreover, what was known up to now as Hemimycale columella, is formed by two cryptic species with contrasting bathymetric distributions. Some small but consistent morphological differences allow species distinction.ConclusionsA new family (Hemimycalidae) including the genus Hemimycale and the two purported new genera receiving C. cyathophora and Hemimycale arabica might be proposed according to our phylogenetic results. However, the inclusion of additional Operational Taxonomic Unit (OTUs) appears convenient before taking definite taxonomical decisions. A new cryptic species (Hemimycale mediterranea sp. nov.) is described. Morphologically undifferentiated species with contrasting biological traits, as those here reported, confirm that unidentified cryptic species may confound ecological studies.

Studies on Southwest Pacific Hexactinellida 1: Atlantisella lorraineae, a new glass sponge genus and species record for New Zealand

Studies on Southwest Pacific Hexactinellida 1: Atlantisella lorraineae, a new glass sponge genus and species record for New Zealand