Moth Generations Research Articles

Evaluation of the effects, on canopy arthropods, of two agricultural management systems to control pests in olive groves from north-east of Portugal

This study aims to investigate the effect of management regime on canopy arthropod community of the olive tree ( Olea europaea L.). Field studies were performed in two successive years, 2002 and 2003, in two olive groves, one under organic farming and the other under integrated protection. The integrated protection grove was sprayed once a year in June, with dimethoate, to control the anthophagous generation of the olive moth, Prays oleae (Bern.). From April to November of each year, the canopy arthropods were sampled weekly. PRC method was used to analyse the effect of management regime at the community level and results showed that taxa responded differently to insecticide application suggesting that the organic grove was a more suitable habitat for the arthropods than the integrated protection grove. Abundance of arthropods peaked in May and June for both years but, after spraying with dimethoate, decreased significantly in integrated protection grove, recovering very slowly thereafter. Psocoptera, Miridae, Formicidae and Coccinellidae were the most sensitive taxa to insecticide application. Their decreasing in abundance was more evident in the second year of the trial. On the other hand chrysopids showed some tolerance to insecticide applications. These results suggest that the timing of spray is of utmost importance in reducing the side effects of spraying on beneficial arthropods. Moreover, differences in population susceptibility as well as in life cycle patterns must be considered.

Yield loss quantification and economic injury level estimation for the carpophagous generations of the European grapevine moth Lobesia botrana Den. et Schiff. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Yield loss in grapevine caused by the two carpophagous generations of the grapevine moth, Lobesia botrana Den. et Schiff. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), was determined during 1995 – 1999 in a vineyard of the wine production variety ‘Savvatiano’ situated at Spata, Attiki, Greece. Concurrently, an estimate of the economic injury level (EIL) was obtained for each generation and expressed as both pest density and damage level. Damage level and larval densities were monitored and injury tolerance of the variety was also taken into account for calculating yield loss. Yield loss was found to be substantial, in particular for the second carpophagous generation, amounting to 2767 kg/ha or 13.3% for the first and 5685 kg/ha or 27% for the second carpophagous generation. During the survey, the EIL expressed as damage level was found to be one damaged berry/bunch for both generations, but when expressed as larval density it was nearly five times as high for the first (0.28 larvae/bunch) in contrast to the second carpophagous generation (0.06 larvae/bunch). These findings are discussed in the light of post-1999 changes in pest management costs.

Small Plot Trials Documenting Effective Mating Disruption of Oriental Fruit Moth by Using High Densities of Wax-Drop Pheromone Dispensers

In 2004 field experiments, we compared the effectiveness of various deployment densities of 0.1-ml paraffin wax drops containing 5% pheromone versus Isomate M-Rosso "rope" dispensers for disruption of Grapholita molesta (Busck). Treatments were evaluated in 0.05-ha (12-tree) plots of 'Delicious' apples receiving regular maintenance according to growers' standards, but not sprayed with insecticides. The application densities of 0.1-ml wax drops were 3 per tree (820/ha), 10 per tree (2,700/ha), 30 per tree (8,200/ha), and 100 per tree (27,300/ha). Wax drops were compared with 3-ml dispensers of pheromone-containing paraffin wax or Isomate M-Rosso ropes at 1.8 per tree (500/ha) and untreated control plots. Treatments were applied before the start of each of three moth generations. Orientational disruption, as measured by inhibition of moth captures in pheromone-baited delta traps, was greatest in plots that received 100 drops per tree (99.2%) and 30 drops per tree (99.4%). More than 55% of tethered, virgin females were mated in control plots after one night of deployment. However, no mating was recorded at the two highest application densities of wax drops where orientational disruption of traps exceeded 99%. Mating ranged from 7 to 20% among the other treatments, including Isomate rope dispensers. G. molesta males were observed closely approaching pheromone dispensers in plots containing ropes and wax drops, documenting competitive attraction between synthetic pheromone sources and feral females. The majority of observed G. molesta males approached within 60 cm of wax drops or pheromone ropes and departed within 20 s by flying upwind. Thirty wax drops per tree yielded higher mating disruption of G. molesta than did Isomate M-Rosso dispensers deployed at the recommended rate of 500/ha (1.8 per tree). Measurement of release rates confirmed behavioral data indicating that paraffin wax dispensers would need to be applied once per G. molesta generation in Michigan. Paraffin wax drops are a promising technology for moth mating disruption. They are cheaper and easier to produce, require less total pheromone per annual application, and produce better mating disruption at appropriate deployment densities compared with Isomate M-Rosso dispensers under high G. molesta population densities. The cost-effectiveness of this approach will require an appropriate mechanized applicator for wax drops.

Mating Disruption of Lobesia botrana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae): Effect of Pheromone Formulations and Concentrations

The reluctance of Israeli vine growers to adopt the mating disruption technique to control the moth Lobesia botrana Den. & Schiff. has been attributed to the high cost of this method compared with that of traditional insecticide control. In this study, we tested the possibility of reducing the cost, first by testing different pheromone formulations (and thus open the market for competition) and second by reducing the pheromone concentration used in vineyards. Comparisons were made between two pheromone formulations--Shin-Etsu (Tokyo, Japan) at 165 g/ha and Concep (Sutera, Bend, OR) at 150 g/ha--and between two concentrations of Shin-Etsu, 165 and 110 g/ha. Pheromone dispensers were placed at the onset of the second moth generation. Comparison of the numbers of clusters infested with eggs and larvae of L. botrana showed no significant differences in the performance, either between the two formulations, or between the two tested concentrations. The results suggest that 1) the two formulations are equally effective, and 2) a low pheromone concentration is sufficient to maintain good control of small populations of L. botrana. However, when the population is high, pest control efficacy is not improved by increasing the pheromone concentration. Therefore, in the interest of reducing the relatively high cost of mating disruption, we emphasize that increasing the pheromone concentration does not provide improved control of high populations of L. botrana. The cost of mating disruption can be diminished by reducing the applied pheromone concentration and by using the least expensive pheromone formulations

Oriental Fruit Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Phenology and Management with Methoxyfenozide in North Carolina Apples

The phenology of oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), on apple (Malus spp.) in North Carolina was studied using pheromone traps and egg sampling in abandoned and commercial orchards in 2000 and 2001, with subsequent development of an oviposition degree-day model and management studies in relation to codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), phenology. Oriental fruit moth eggs were found in greater numbers on leaves early and on fruit later in the growing season, on the top versus the bottom of the leaf surface, and on the calyx area versus the side or stem end of the fruit. A degree-day (DD) model to predict oriental fruit moth oviposition was developed based on temperature accumulations from peak moth trap capture of the first (overwintering) generation, by using 7.2 and 32.2°C as the temperature limits. The model predicted four ovipositing generations of oriental fruit moth with the second beginning 507 DD after peak moth catch. Using predictions of the oriental fruit moth and codling moth degree-day oviposition models, an experiment was conducted to determine the level of second generation oriental fruit moth control with methoxyfenozide applied under different scenarios for first generation codling moth. Methoxyfenozide was equally effective in managing codling moth and oriental fruit moth for all treatment timings.

Oriental fruit moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) phenology and management with methoxyfenozide in North Carolina apples.

The phenology of oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), on apple (Malus spp.) in North Carolina was studied using pheromone traps and egg sampling in abandoned and commercial orchards in 2000 and 2001, with subsequent development of an oviposition degree-day model and management studies in relation to codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), phenology. Oriental fruit moth eggs were found in greater numbers on leaves early and on fruit later in the growing season, on the top versus the bottom of the leaf surface, and on the calyx area versus the side or stem end of the fruit. A degree-day (DD) model to predict oriental fruit moth oviposition was developed based on temperature accumulations from peak moth trap capture of the first (overwintering) generation, by using 7.2 and 32.2 degrees C as the temperature limits. The model predicted four ovipositing generations of oriental fruit moth with the second beginning 507 DD after peak moth catch. Using predictions of the oriental fruit moth and codling moth degree-day oviposition models, an experiment was conducted to determine the level of second generation oriental fruit moth control with methoxyfenozide applied under different scenarios for first generation codling moth. Methoxyfenozide was equally effective in managing codling moth and oriental fruit moth for all treatment timings.

SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SOME GRAPEVINE CULTIVARS IN AREA OF VINEYARDS OF PODGORICA ON THE ATTACK OF EUROPEAN GRAPE BERRY MOTH - LOBESIA BOTRANA DEN & SCHIFF, LEPIDOPTERA, TROTRICIDAE

Economically the most important pest of grapevine in area of vineyards of Podgorica is Lobesia botrana Den. et Schiff. (Lepidoptera, Tortricide). Larvae feeding in flower buds, flowers, green and mature grape berries cause damage. Larvae might finish their development even on young leaves. Not all the cultivars have the same susceptibility to the moth attack. This depends on the bunch compactness, as well as on the composition and thickness of berry epidermis and sugar content in grapes. Investigations were conducted during 1998 and 2000 on three grapevine cultivars: Vranac, Rkaciteli and Cardinal on second generation of moth. On 25 randomly chosen grapevine plants, 4 bunches of grapes were examined in detail to check moth presence and calculate the number of cocoons on 100 bunches of grapes. For the first moth generation in the period of full bloom, all bunches of grapes from 25 grapevine plants of nine cultivars (Vranac, Kratosija, Krstac, Cardinal, Ribier, Pleven, Early Afus Ali, Clotild Prosperi and Caus × Bulgar), were examined during the period of investigation. Average number of cocoons on 100 bunches of grapes was calculated. The most important attack of the grape berry moth was in Krstac cultivar, which is one of the most represented autochthonous cultivar with white epidermis, followed by Vranac and Kratosija. According to the observations, those three cultivars had the most compact clusters. The highest percentage of infested bunch of grapes in the second generation was in Vranac cultivar that also had the most compact bunch of grapes. Considering that the most susceptible cultivars to the moth attack were those with compact clusters and bunches of grapes, and also that females lay eggs on the bunches protected from the direct sun, the training system that allows the better plant aeration possible, should be chosen, during the grapevine growth.

INTEGRATED CONTROL OF GRAPE BERRY MOTH (LOBESIA BOTRANA DEN & SCHIFF) IN ROMANIA

The research work carried out the period 1999-2002 in Viticulture Research Station Murfatlar and the results obtained revealed a good efficiency of using biological and biotechnical methods in integrated control of grape moth. Work was done using Romanian pheromone traps “atraBOT”, in order to establish the flight curves, supervise the populations according to the economic threshold (100 males butterflies/trap/week) and control the moth by a mass capture of males with 3, 6 and 9 traps/ha. The biopreparations Dipel ES at a rate of 1.0 L/ha, Ecotech-extra at 1.5 L/ha and Foray (Biobit) at 1.5 L/ha, based on Bacillus thuringiensis was applied especially for third generation of grape moth with good results. A good efficiency in chemical control of the pest Lobesia botrana was obtained with Larvin 375 at a rate of 1.0 L/ha; Bulldock 25 EC at 0.3 l/ha; Enduro 258 EC at 0.3 L/ha; Reldan 40 EC at 1.25 L/ha; Polytin 200 EC at 0.1 L/ha; Karate Zeon at 0.25 L/ha; Decis 25 EC at 0.3 L/ha and Total 60 EC at 1.5 L/ha. The best results in controlling this pest were obtained with new cloronicotiniles like Actara 25 WG at a rate of 100 g/ha and Calypso 480 EC at a rate of 100 ml/ha and also with mixture between Dipel ES 0.5 L/ha and Actara 25 WG at 50 g/ha or Calypso 480 EC 50 ml/ha, both at half of its usual rate.

Volatiles associated with preferred and nonpreferred hosts of the Nantucket pine tip moth, Rhyacionia frustrana.

Ovipositing female Nantucket pine tip moth, Rhyacionia frustrana, prefer loblolly pine, Pinus taeda L., to slash pine, Pinus elliottii Engelm, except during the first spring following planting of seedlings. Host discrimination by R. frustrana increases as seedlings develop, suggesting that changes in the chemical composition of seedlings may mediate the moth's host preferences. Volatile compounds from slash and loblolly pine seedlings were collected using solid-phase microextraction (SPME) during the first year following planting. Four collection periods coincided with adult emergence and oviposition during each of four annual generations of R. frustrana in the Georgia Coastal Plain. Infestation of slash pine peaked during the second tip moth generation and was similar to the loblolly pine infestation level. By the fourth tip moth generation, slash pine infestation levels had declined and diverged considerably from those of loblolly pine. Significant differences in relative quantities of beta-pinene, alpha-phellandrene, limonene, beta-phellandrene, bornyl acetate, beta-caryophyllene, and an unidentified sesquiterpene occurred between slash and loblolly pine during the fourth generation. However, no strong correlation was observed between any individual compound and host damage that could readily explain the temporal changes in R. frustrana host preference. Gas chromatographic-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) analyses of standards identified 19 different seedling-associated compounds that elicited antennal responses from R. frustrana females, indicating that a blend of terpenoids may mediate host discrimination.

Efficacy of Wing Versus Delta Traps for Predicting Infestation Levels of Four Generations of the Nantucket Pine Tip Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in the Southern United States

Abstract The use of pheromone trap catches to reliably predict damage by the Nantucket pine tip moth, Rhyacionia frustrana (Comstock), in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) plantations would provide forest managers with a valuable integrated pest management tool. At 17 sites throughout four states in the southern United States, in areas where R. frustrana has four annual generations, adult moths were monitored throughout the year (2002) using two types of pheromone traps, and subsequent infestation levels were determined for each tip moth generation. Cumulative wing trap catch tallies up to published spray dates for three of four adult emergence periods were highly predictive of top whorl damage during the subsequent generation using linear regression models. Multiple linear regression that included initial average tree height as a covariate did not significantly improve model efficacy. Cumulative delta trap catch tallies up to the spray date were not predictive of subsequent damage levels for any tip moth ge...

Irrigation and Fertilization Effects on Nantucket Pine Tip Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Damage Levels and Pupal Weight in an Intensively-Managed Pine Plantation2

The widespread application of intensive forest management practices throughout the southeastern U.S. has increased loblolly pine, Pinus taeda L., yields and shortened conventional rotation lengths. Fluctuations in Nantucket pine tip moth, Rhyacionia frustrana (Comstock), population density and subsequent damage levels have been linked to variations in management intensity. We examined the effects of two practices, irrigation and fertilization, on R. frustrana damage levels and pupal weights in an intensively-managed P. taeda plantation in South Carolina. Trees received intensive weed control and one of the following treatments: irrigation only, fertilization only, irrigation + fertilization, or control. Mean whole-tree tip moth damage levels ranged from <1 to 48% during this study. Damage levels differed significantly among treatments in two tip moth generations in 2001, but not 2000. Pupal weight was significantly heavier in fertilization compared to the irrigation treatment in 2000, but no significant differences were observed in 2001. Tree diameter, height, and aboveground volume were significantly greater in the irrigation + fertilization than in the irrigation treatment after two growing seasons. Our data suggest that intensive management practices that include irrigation and fertilization do not consistently increase R. frustrana damage levels and pupal weights as is commonly believed. However, tip moth suppression efforts in areas adjacent to our study may have partially reduced the potential impacts of R. frustrana on this experiment.

Spatial patterns and infestation processes in the horse chestnut leafminer Cameraria ohridella: a tale of two cities

AbstractSpatial patterns of the horse chestnut leafminer Cameraria ohridella Deschka & Dimic (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) population density was analysed in the cities of Bern and Brussels in order to explore its spatial population dynamics. The surveys were carried out in Bern in 1998 and 2000 and in Brussels in 2001 to assess population density in relation to local characteristics. In Brussels, population density was also measured using pheromone traps distributed over the city and collected twice per moth generation. A quantitative relationship was found between local population density (measured by pheromone traps and survey observations) and the amount of leaves left on the ground the previous fall. Several other factors were related to observed infestation levels: the occurrence of the pathogen Guignardia aesculi was inversely related to infestation by C. ohridella in Bern in 1998 and 2000, the number of horse chestnut trees within 800 m distance was positively related to infestation level in Bern in 2000, and the proportion of green areas within 100 m and the number of other horse chestnut trees within 2000 m were positively related to infestation levels in the 2001 Brussels survey. The pattern of infestation levels as a function of distance to potential population reservoirs suggested that C. ohridella re‐invades areas where overwintering leaves have been cleaned from refuge areas such as parks or urban forests. Our results indicate that the removal of leaves is a feasible first aid control measure to reduce moth population densities. However, leaf removal may not reduce moth densities when done improperly. In places where proper leaf removal is not feasible, other control measures are needed.

Modelling seasonality of gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), to evaluate probability of its persistence in novel environments

AbstractThe predictions of three published models of temperature-dependent egg hatch of the European strain of the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar L., were compared with observed hatch rates of caged egg masses in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Two of the three models gave a good fit to observations. Both of these models considered explicitly the period between oviposition in the summer of one year and hatch of neonates the following spring. When combined with models for temperature-dependent development of larvae and pupae, and adult longevity, the seasonal life history of an entire generation of gypsy moth could be simulated. These composite models predict the seasonal occurrence of all life stages of the insect. The simulated flight period of adult male gypsy moth on Vancouver Island in 1998 compared favourably with observed captures in pheromone traps. A series of gypsy moth generations was simulated using daily temperature inputs reconstructed from climatic normals (period 1961–1990) at various locations on the south coast and southern interior of British Columbia where gypsy moth has been frequently introduced but is not established. These simulations provided estimates of the probability of a persistent population resulting from a predicted stable seasonality of the gypsy moth. The highest probabilities of persistence were in coastal areas along the Strait of Georgia between Vancouver Island and the continental mainland and in southern interior valleys below approximately 500-m elevation (above sea level). Outside these regions, normal climatic profiles resulted in an unstable seasonality for gypsy moth with increasingly late oviposition dates, and subsequent problems in synchronizing initiation and completion of winter diapause with appropriate ambient conditions. The phenology models discussed here can be and were used as decision-support tools either to improve the efficiency of pest management operations (sampling, pesticide applications) or to make better decisions concerning the need for eradication of the gypsy moth in novel environments.

Comparison Between the Control Efficacy of Trichogramma evanescens Westwood (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) and Two Trichogramma cacoeciae Marchal Strains Against Grapevine Moth ( Lobesia botrana Den. & Schiff.), Depending on Their Release Density

In the first generation of the grape moth Lobesia botrana, Trichogramma evanescens spread to a greater extent than Trichogramma cacoeciae and parasitized most of the grape moth eggs. Reduction of damage to grapes was improved by doubling the number of T. evanescens release points in the first and second generations. In the second generation of the grape moth, T. cacoeciae was more efficient than T. evanescens . The highest proportion of individuals belonging to the reared and natural T. cacoeciae strains were found in the plot in which they were initially released. The total number of individuals emerging from parasitized eggs eggs was the same for each strain, which would suggest that neither predominated. Whichever T. cacoeciae strain considered, a density of 800 release points ha -1 did not induce greater parasitization than a density of 400 release points ha -1 .

Quantity and Ratio of Pheromone Components Among Multiple Generations of the Nantucket Pine Tip Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in Georgia and Virginia

Abstract The quantity and ratio of two sex pheromone components in the abdominal gland of Rhyacionia frustrana (Comstock) were determined for three generations from the Georgia Piedmont, two generations from the Georgia Coastal Plain, and one generation from the Virginia Coastal Plain. There were no significant differences among quantities of either pheromone component among any generations or collection sites. Quantities for the major component, (E)-9-dodecen-1-yl acetate, varied among the samples from 10.8 to 18.6 ng per adult female. Similarly, quantities for the minor component, (E)-9,11-dodecadien-1-yl acetate, varied from 0.5 to 0.9 ng per female. Ratios were significantly different only between the second generation Georgia Coastal Plain and first-generation Virginia Coastal Plain, although we do not think these differences are biologically meaningful. Pheromone component ratios for the major and minor component ranged from 16.5:1–23.4:1 among all sites. The significance of these findings as they r...

Survey of natural populations of Trichogramma (Hym., Trichogrammatidae) in the vineyards of Alsace (France)

Activity of Trichogramma, assessed by trapping with host‐eggs, was observed as early as April and continued until October in the vineyards and their surrounding biotops. Trichogramma showed the greatest activity in April‐May, July and September. Parasitized eggs were found before the main laying period of the first generation of the grapevine moths Lobesia botrana Den. and Schiff. and Eupoecilia ambiguella Hb. Four native species, Trichogramma cacoeciae Marchal, Trichogramma daumalae Dugast and Voegelé, Trichogramma evanescens Westwood and Trichogramma principium Sugonjaev and Sorokina were found.

Effect of temperature on development and activity periods of the leek moth Acrolepiopsis assectella Zell. (Lep., Acrolepiidae)

Effects of temperature on egg, larval and pupal developmental times of the leek moth were examined at five constant temperatures ranging from 12 to 20°C. Using this data, a linear degree‐day model for the leek moth was developed. The model gave the threshold temperature of Th=6°C, and 630 degree‐days were required above the threshold temperature, to complete the development of the leek moth. To validate the model in the field, flight activity during the summers of 1998 and 1999 was studied using pheromone traps. If the summer is warm the leek moth can have two generations per year in Sweden, but the probability of completing two generations within leek plantations is very limited. The likelihood of the leek moth becoming a pest is highly dependent on access to alternative host plants for the first generation of leek moths.

Walnut development affects chemical composition and codling moth performance

Abstract1 We investigated for early and late blooming walnut cultivars in California whether variation in nut phenology resulted in differences in nutritional quality and whether this, in turn, affected the performance of the codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), and the extent of nut damage.2 Mid‐season, during the period of nut growth, nuts from the early cultivars were larger than those from the late cultivars and had higher nitrogen content in both husk and kernel tissue, while kernel phenolic content was significantly lower. No major differences were observed later in the season after nuts from all cultivars had reached their final size.3 Throughout the season establishment of neonate larvae was highest on nuts from the early cultivars but this was only significantly so at the beginning of the third codling moth generation. During the second codling moth generation (mid season) relative growth rates of third‐instar larvae were significantly higher on early than on late cultivars. Nut damage in the field was also significantly greater on early than on late cultivars during generation 2, while no significant differences were observed during generation 3.4 The data suggest that the variation in codling moth damage among walnut cultivars is related to bloom phenology due to the influence of nut phenology on larval performance.

Predicting Infestation Levels of the Nantucket Pine Tip Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Using Pheromone Traps

There is considerable interest in using pheromone trap catches of the Nantucket pine tip moth, Rhyacionia frustrana (Comstock), to estimate or predict population density and damage. At six sites in the Georgia Piedmont, adult tip moths were monitored through one or more years using pheromone traps while population density and damage for each tip moth generation were determined. During most years, trap catch was higher during the first adult generation compared with subsequent generations regardless of population density. Within each generation, trap catch was moderately to highly correlated with associated population density or damage levels. Hyperbolic regression models best described these relationships and suggested trap saturation when populations are high. Trap catch during the first adult generation was highly predictive of population density or damage during the subsequent generation. Trap catch during the second adult generation was fair at predicting subsequent density or damage. The models presented herein should be used with caution because they are likely to be region-specific. Validation of these relationships is necessary before widespread application of these models is warranted.

Efficacy tests and determination of optimal spray timing values to control nantucket pine tip moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) infestations.

The Nantucket pine tip moth, Rhyaciona frustrana (Comstock), a common regeneration pest of loblolly pine, Pinus taeda L., has been shown to reduce tree volume yields through larval feeding. Chemical applications can be effective in protecting trees from the growth losses associated with this feeding, and optimum spray timing values are commonly used to reduce the number of necessary applications and to increase insecticide efficacy. Optimal spray timing values for the Georgia Piedmont were obtained for the following four insecticides available for use in loblolly pine plantations: permethrin (Pounce), lambda-cyhalothrin (Warrior T), spinosad (SpinTor 2 SC), and Bacillus thuringiensis variety kurstaki Berliner (Foray 48B). Optimal timing values were similar between the first and second generations for each of these compounds. All of the insecticides used in this study significantly reduced tip moth damage below the control treatment levels. Lambda-cyhalothrin was the most efficacious and had the longest spray timing window. B. thuringiensis was the least effective and had the shortest timing window. Spinosad and permethrin were similar in efficacy and spray timing values. This information is applicable to regions where there are three tip moth generations per year, as found in the southern Piedmont region and the coastal plain of Virginia and most of North Carolina.