General Social Survey Research Articles

Religious beliefs and social class identification: micro evidence from China.

Residents' sense of social class identity is of great significance for enhancing self-happiness and maintaining social stability. As a spiritual force, religious beliefs can significantly influence residents' subjective perceptions. Based on this, using data from the 2021 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS 2021), this paper explores the impact of religious beliefs on residents' sense of social class identity through the probit model and Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) method, and analyzes potential mechanisms. The baseline regression results indicate that religious beliefs significantly enhance residents' sense of social class identity(p < 0.05), a conclusion that holds true even after rigorous robustness tests. Furthermore, female residents(p < 0.05), residents with lower education levels(p < 0.05), and those who believe in domestic religions(p < 0.05) exhibit higher social class identification compared to those who believe in foreign religions. Mechanism analysis suggests that economic capital and social capital play mediating roles, indicating that religious beliefs enhance the economic(p < 0.01) and social capital of believers(p < 0.01), thereby increasing their sense of social class identity. Therefore, this paper suggests respecting residents' religious beliefs, while religious organizations should actively adapt to the needs of social development, providing spiritual comfort and moral guidance to residents.

Research on the Impact of Environmental Inequality on Labor Mobility—A Study Based on the China General Social Survey (CGSS)

In recent years, as the capital-driven economic growth model gradually encounters bottlenecks and regional economic competition intensifies, governments at all levels have turned to attracting high-quality talent to promote economic transformation and upgrading. Against this backdrop, the quality of the ecological environment has gradually become an important factor affecting labor mobility. This paper explores the impact of environmental inequality on labor mobility by matching provincial and municipal data with micro-data from the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS), especially focusing on how environmental inequality affects labor decision-making through cognitive and non-cognitive abilities. The results from the benchmark regression confirm that environmental inequality significantly suppresses labor mobility, while robustness tests further validate these findings. Additionally, the mediation mechanism analysis reveals that environmental inequality influences labor mobility through impairments in both cognitive and non-cognitive abilities. The study also conducts an analysis of the heterogeneity of different social groups, finding that environmental inequality has a particularly significant impact on groups with higher levels of education, property owners, and residents living in economically disadvantaged areas. Based on this, the paper puts forward policy recommendations for different groups, emphasizing the importance of optimizing environmental quality, improving education levels, and enhancing the social support system. The research conclusions provide theoretical support for local governments in enhancing regional competitiveness and attracting high-quality labor.

Social Trust in China

This article provides a comprehensive examination of social trust in China. It addresses ongoing debates about how much people trust, whether there is a trust crisis, and where trust comes from. Analyzing extensive harmonized data from the Chinese General Social Survey (2003–2021) and the World Values Survey (1990–2018) spanning three decades, we find that Chinese people have high levels of general trust in others; this high social trust has been largely stable over the last three decades; and political confidence and perceived fairness are two key drivers of trust. On the other hand, we see marked low trust toward several groups, such as strangers, businessmen, and religious individuals. Potential explanations are discussed. This study contributes to key trust debates and identifies novel trust patterns that can serve as valuable subjects for future research.

Gender Equality in the Division of Housework and Fertility Intentions in Canada: The Moderating Effect of Employment and Education

Drawing on the Gender Revolution Framework, this research uses data from Canada General Social Survey and binary logistic regression to examine how the gender division of housework influences fertility intentions among partnered women aged 18–39 ( N = 1589), across various employment and education levels. Unadjusted results showed that women who shared household routine tasks (cooking, cleaning, dishes, and laundry) and intermittent tasks (grocery shopping, organizing social life, finance, and bill paying) with their partner had higher intentions to have children. The adjusted findings revealed that women’s employment status moderated the relationship between gender division of household routine tasks and fertility intentions, while education had no significant moderating effect. Employed women who did not share equally household routine tasks with their spouse had a lower probability of intention to have children (0.22), compared to their unemployed counterparts (0.48). The findings have significant implications for social and family policies that are discussed in detail.

Fairness, Trust, and Well-Being Among Young Adults: Evidence from 2021 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS).

Background. As China has undergone tremendous socioeconomic and demographic changes during and after the pandemic, it is crucial to enhance youth well-being and facilitate their transition into the workforce. This study aims to explore the multi-dimensional features of well-being and examine their relationships with fairness and trust. Methods. Using the nationally representative data from the 2021 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS), this study analyzes the well-being of 1726 young adults aged 18 to 34 years old living in 19 provinces in China. Results. The research findings generate five latent factors of well-being and reveal the multi-faceted nature of subjective well-being, including physical and mental health challenges, positive outlook, sense of purpose, personal growth, and self-fulfillment. Physical and mental health is the cornerstone for well-being and happiness. Young people with poor physical and mental health conditions are less likely to perceive that society is fair or that people are trustworthy. Additionally, a positive outlook and future orientation are strongly associated with high fairness and/or trust. Discussion and Conclusions. By investigating the differential domains of well-being, this study contributes to the literature with the new conceptualization of well-being sub-measures and their application to youth. Furthermore, this study identifies that well-being is not only an individual-level characteristic but also a group-level attribute that can contribute to fairness and trust at the societal level. As China continues to expand its infrastructure on education, health, and technology, it is expected that sustainable economic growth and development should boost young people's career development and promote their upward mobility.

The impact of robots on unemployment duration: Evidence from the Chinese general social survey

The issue of the impact of robot applications on unemployment duration remains relatively unexplored. Using individual-level data from the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS), we shed new light on the effects of robots on unemployment likelihood and duration. Major findings include that: (1) robots prolong the duration of unemployment, particularly for workers in routine occupations compared to those in non-routine occupations. This phenomenon can be understood as a form of structural unemployment; (2) workers with low skills, low economic and occupational status, and parenting responsibilities suffer more from the robot shock. In particular, robots adversely affect women's careers, and traditional perceptions amplify this effect to dampen their willingness and efforts to find job searching, resulting in longer periods of unemployment. These heterogeneous impacts of robots on unemployment duration highlight the need for greater support and policy interventions for vulnerable groups; (3) access to information from digital channels plays a pivotal role in alleviating the adverse impacts of robots on vulnerable groups. Reducing information asymmetry and nurturing job search capabilities help the vulnerable better adapt to evolving labor market conditions, thereby mitigating the negative consequences of robots.

The Impact of Parental Education on Childrens Future Income

Abstract: This study examines the casual effect of parental educational achievement and family background on educational outcome and income for children. In addition, the study tests the parental education as an instrumental variable for childrens education. The 2022 United States General Social Survey (GSS2022) has been used as the dataset. This article uses Mincer earning function and instrumental variable regression to generate the outcomes between parental status, parental educational achievement, and the outcomes for children. The result indicates that the impact of parental educational achievement and advantage family background on income for children is negligible. The result also shows that the education has a significant effect on income. Furthermore, the study finds out that there is significant correlation between parental educational achievement and the educational achievement for children. In addition, the advantage family background has a significant impact on educational attainment for children. Moreover, the instrumental variable regression outcomes indicate that the difference between IV regression and OLS regression is small. This research uses the latest dataset to find out the casual effects of family background and parental education on childrens education and future income.

The connection between social capital and Chinese public health: an analysis of six Chinese general social surveys

This study examines the connection between social capital and the perceived health status for the Chinese public. Extending from previous research that uses unrepresentative samples, the current project analyzes nationally representative samples of approximately 60,000 respondents. The data are drawn from six waves of the Chinese General Social Survey conducted in 2010, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2017, and 2018, respectively. The multilevel regression approach is used for statistical estimation. Findings show a consistent pattern that social capital, encompassing social network and generalized trust, is positively related to one’s perceived health status across these years. In addition, the moderating impact of personal capital on the link between social capital and perceived health status is identified. Social capital has a greater health impact on those with lower personal capital than those with higher personal capital. This study complements current literature and has implications for public health policies.

The effect of internet use on the health of middle-aged and older adults: evidences from China general social survey

BackgroundAccording to the United Nations classification of aging societies, China is rapidly transitioning into a moderately aging society, facing significant challenges related to population aging. Concurrently, China is actively implementing the Internet Power Strategy and the Internet Plus action plan, which are profoundly transforming the daily lives of individuals, including their health status. However, research on the impact of internet use on the health of middle-aged and older adults has not reached a consensus. This study aims to investigate the effects of internet use on the health of middle-aged and older adults, as well as the mechanisms and heterogeneity of these effects.MethodsThis study utilized data from the China General Social Survey conducted in 2018, which includes a sample of 6470 individuals. Self-rated health, mental health, and objective health were used as key health indicators, with internet use identified as the primary independent variable. The study aims to analyze the impact of internet use on the health status of middle-aged and older adults through the application of an ordered probit model and instrumental variable methods.ResultsThe results indicate that internet use has a significant positive impact on the health of middle-aged and older adults, with significance at the 1% level. This finding has passed a series of robustness tests. Mechanism analysis reveals that information acquisition is a crucial mediating mechanism between internet use and the health of middle-aged and older adults. This suggests that increased internet use enhances information access, thereby improving health outcomes. Furthermore, heterogeneity analysis shows that the impact of internet use on health is more pronounced among individuals living in rural areas, western regions, low-income groups, and those aged under 60, compared to their counterparts in urban areas, eastern regions, higher-income brackets, and those aged 60 and above.ConclusionInternet use can improve the health of middle-aged and older adults. Therefore, government departments, senior universities, communities, and families should collaborate to actively conduct digital skills training for older adults. Additionally, efforts should be accelerated to adapt electronic products to be more elder-friendly, helping older adults overcome the digital divide and thereby reducing health inequalities among middle-aged and older groups.

Race, Political Ideology, and Support for Defunding the Police in the United States

ABSTRACT This study investigates public attitudes toward “Defund the Police” proposals amid U.S. protests against racism and police brutality. Analysis of 2021 General Social Survey data reveals that racial identity and political ideology significantly shape these attitudes. Black Americans demonstrate the highest support for defunding, followed by Hispanic Americans and other racial and ethnic minorities, reflecting diverse historical and cultural experiences with the government. Political ideology further polarizes opinions, with liberals more supportive and conservatives more opposed. These findings highlight the complexities of addressing systemic issues in criminal justice and the importance of social identities in shaping attitudes toward police reform.

Who dominates? Multiple constructions of women's subjective social status and their cohort dynamics in transitional China

The way women construct their subjective social status has garnered significant attention. However, the roles of husbands and fathers in this process have been underexplored, with even less focus on how these roles have evolved across generations. This study aims to answer two important questions against the backdrop: First, which is the most dominant factor in shaping married women's subjective social status, their own objective class or those of their husband or father? Answers to this question reveal the impacts of assortative mating and intergenerational mobility. Second, how does the construction pattern change across birth cohorts? Cohort dynamics help reflect the evolution of gender roles and family values in China. Using pooled data from the Chinese General Social Survey in 2010–2017 and the diagonal reference model, our study finds that Chinese married women previously tended to construct their own social status based on the objective class of their husbands. However, this trend is reversed for younger cohorts. Father's objective class status carries roughly the same weight as women's own, but its impact becomes moderately stronger in younger cohorts. Taken together, the above findings reveal a unique pathway of family modernization in transitional China. Married women, although increasingly independent of their spouses, still remain closely connected with their natal families.

Internet usage, environmental knowledge, and the surge of air pollution concern in China

ABSTRACT Environmental pollution has become a serious public concern in China. What impact does the Internet have on people’s perception of pollution? This study evaluates the causal effect of the Internet usage on the perception of air pollution by scrutinizing data from the China General Social Survey 2013. The results indicate that people who rely more heavily on the Internet for information perceive more severe pollution. This amplification effect cannot be attributed to the contextual factors including economic development or pollution severity through increasing the usage of the Internet. This study concludes with an exploratory mechanism analysis which demonstrates that people acquire greater environmental knowledge by using the Internet which serves to raise the awareness and amplify the perceived seriousness of air pollution.

The effect of urban resilience on social stability under external disaster strikes--Evidence from China during COVID-19 pandemic

The robustness of civil society plays a pivotal role in shaping the aftermath of disasters. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, the question arises: why did some cities witness widespread resident protests, while others remained relatively calm? Certain theoretical studies have suggested that urban economic disruptions stemming from external disasters can significantly undermine social stability, yet these studies lack empirical validation of the underlying mechanisms. This research endeavors to explore the factors within urban resilience that influence social stability during major public events, a topic that has received scant attention in existing empirical studies.Utilizing data from the Chinese General Social Survey (2021), this study introduces an empirical causal analysis framework integrating the "entropy value method" and "fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA)" to investigate the following: (1) The univariate test reveals that the consistency level of all conditions is below 0.9, indicating that no single-dimensional factor alone can enhance social stability. (2) The absence of urban economic resilience emerges as a critical conditional variable contributing to non-high levels of social stability, thereby serving as the primary driver of social instability. (3) Group analysis identifies three distinct pathways through which urban resilience impacts social stability: the "economic-ecological-resource" support path, the "economic-ecological-risk" mitigation path, and the "economic-ecological-challenge" resolution path.

Gender dynamics in dual-earner couples: Spousal occupational status and working hours

In the ever-evolving landscape of contemporary households, this study explores how a spouse’s job status impacts working hours in dual-earner households, emphasizing gender dynamics. Analyzing data from the 2011–2017 Chinese General Social Survey, it finds that higher occupational status for either spouse correlates with reduced work hours for both genders. Yet, gender-specific differences arise. Husbands with higher job status tend to engage less in household chores, increasing women’s burden. This research deepens the understanding of labor market fairness and household division, emphasizing the necessity for a thorough investigation into these dynamics for precise insight into employment dynamics within dual-income families.

Frequency of internet use, economic income, and health of the population-comparative analysis of urban and rural areas based on Chinese General Social Survey.

People's health is one of the important supports for China's economic development. This study uses the 2021 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) data to empirically test the impact of residents' Internet use frequency and economic income on residents' health level, and analyzes the differences between urban and rural areas. The empirical test results show that, firstly, the frequency of Internet use can promote the health level of residents, and the promotion effect of Internet use frequency on the health level of rural residents is higher than that of urban residents; Secondly, economic income has a positive promoting effect on the health level of the entire sample of residents, but in urban samples, the regression between economic income and residents' health level is not significant. Third, in the heterogeneity test of region, gender and age, it is found that the impact of residents' Internet use frequency and economic income on residents' health level also has urban-rural differences. Based on this, this study suggests that the government can continue to make efforts to further promote the health level of residents by improving the Internet penetration rate, strengthening the use of Internet skills, carrying out Internet professional skills training and promoting the high-quality development of Internet content.

Switching location—shifting mindset? The attitude towards female employment of East–West migrants in Germany

The strong migration of former East German residents to the western part of Germany opens a unique way to study the impact of migration modifying gender-related attitudes towards division of labor. While in West Germany more traditional gender attitudes have been prevailing for decades, the East pursued more progressive attitudes regarding the home and labor domain. However, attitudes of East-to-West migrants are mostly unknown. Thus, this article aims at providing a first analysis regarding differing attitudes between domestic migrants and non-movers. Data from the German General Social Surveys (GGSS/ALLBUS) from 1992, 2004, and 2016, including 2428, 2099, and 1486 participants, respectively, were used. Group differences between permanent residents from West Germany (West–West) and from East Germany (East–East) as well as East-to-West migrants were estimated. Pooled regressions were conducted to predict the attitudes towards female employment. East–West migrants’ respective attitudes differed from both of the other groups. However, they were more similar to the more traditional West–West group than the more progressive East–East group. Furthermore, East–West migrants who had lived longer in the West exhibited more traditional attitudes than those who had lived there <10 years. Further, the diversity of East-to-West migrants was acknowledged by observing the year of migration (before 1961, 1961–1989, after 1989) which showed that those who migrated before the erection of the Berlin Wall were more traditional. The finding that East–West migrants’ attitudes were more similar to their place of residence, while the duration of residence was positively associated with the traditional attitude towards female employment prevalent in the West, gives impetus to further research attitudes of domestic migrants. Future research should test whether a selection effect or assimilation cause East–West migrants’ attitudes to resemble their society of residence.

Analysis on the impact of internet use on residents' tourism consumption behavior and the mechanism of action.

Tourism consumption as a typical representative of service consumption, has strong comprehensiveness and driving force, continuously expanding new consumption upgrade space. In the context of the digital economy, the development of the mobile internet has opened up new opportunities for the tourism industry acting as an important factor influencing the consumer behaviour of the residents. Based on 9007 resident survey data from the China General Social Survey (CGSS) in 2017, this paper explores the relationship between Internet use, access to information and residents' travel consumption behavior by means of probit model and mediating effect model. First, according to the findings, Internet use has a positive impact on residents' travel consumption behavior, increasing residents' tourism expenditure. Second, the mechanism suggests that access to information plays a partially mediating role between Internet use and travel consumption behavior. Third, further analysis revealed that, for the retired population, the more frequently they use the Internet, the more likely they are to spend on travel. Compared to those with lower incomes, those with higher incomes will spend less on travel after retirement. With this in mind, in order to promote residents' tourism consumption, speed and fee reduction should be continuously promoted, urban and rural information infrastructure should be strengthened, and accessibility of tourism information for residents should be improved. At the same time, there is a need to innovate the way tourism products are promoted, improve the types of tourism products and launch diversified tourism products.

“Do immigrants cause higher crime rates?” A cumulative cross-sectional general social survey data analysis

While empirical research in the United States has largely debunked the longstanding stereotypical image of immigrants as criminals, Americans have held onto their prejudices against immigrants. Anti-immigrant sentiments and Americans’ support for restrictive and punitive immigration laws and policies have frequently been triggered by political and media rhetoric. Politicians often sensationalize the unfounded claim that immigrants, especially the undocumented, cause higher crime rates. Given the persistent nature of these beliefs and the negative consequences on immigrant communities, researchers have examined factors that predict anti-immigrant sentiments in the U.S. Many of these studies have utilized the General Social Survey (GSS), cross-sectional datasets, broadly examining anti-immigrant attitudes of Americans and their support for restrictive policies and vice versa. These studies highlight political affiliation, race, sex, age, education, socio-economic status and cultural concerns as predictors of these beliefs. However, not many studies utilized cumulative cross-sectional data to grasp the nuanced nature of these beliefs and their consequences over the years. In addition, the GSS variable measuring the immigration and crime nexus was worded differently and contained fewer response categories in the year 2000 compared to other years. This may have implications for data outcomes. Thus, the current paper analyzed cumulative cross-sectional GSS datasets, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2014, and 2022, that had the variable, “Immigrants cause higher crime rates,” as a dependent variable, in association with predictor variables highlighted by previous studies. This article explains the notable differences in those who believed that immigrants cause higher crime rates in 2000 compared to other years. The current analysis enhances previous cross-sectional studies by showing the nuanced nature of the predictors in the backdrop of changing political climate every year. It supports previous studies in emphasizing the importance of respondents’ political affiliation, race and education as predictors. The article also brings attention to possible limitations arising from differences in response categories and other GSS data issues.

Sustainable Consumption and Residents’ Happiness: An Empirical Analysis Based on the 2021 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS2021)

Sustainable consumption is a fundamental driver for implementing sustainable development strategies and is crucial in advancing Chinese-style modernization. Utilizing data from the Chinese General Social Survey 2021 (CGSS2021), this study examines the relationship between sustainable consumption and residents’ happiness, classifying its effects into growth and sustainability. The study results show that (1) sustainable consumption positively influences residents’ happiness. (2) Regionally, in the central and western regions, sustainable consumption significantly enhances residents’ happiness, with the sustainable effect surpassing the growth effect. In contrast, in the eastern region, sustainable consumption alone does not substantially improve residents’ happiness; instead, the growth effect predominates. (3) From an urban–rural perspective, sustainable consumption notably impacts happiness in rural areas. In contrast, urban areas primarily benefit from the growth effect of sustainable consumption, with the sustainable effect being less significant. (4) From an age-related perspective, different factors predominantly influence the happiness of various age groups. For young people, health plays a crucial role in their overall happiness. In contrast, middle-aged groups place more importance on their marital status, while older people are primarily concerned with housing conditions. (5) Income analysis shows that income increases substantially impact the happiness of high-income groups compared to low-income groups. Based on these insights, we recommend enhancing education and guidance on sustainable consumption, implementing regionally differentiated policies, increasing support for green consumption in rural areas, developing age-specific policies, and addressing income disparities. These measures can enhance the residents’ happiness more effectively and contribute to sustainable societal development.

What matters more for happiness than income in China: Intentional activities, social attitudes, or social comparison?

AbstractThe article integrates interdisciplinary insights in an analytical framework and aims to examine what factors matter more for happiness than income in China from a sociological perspective. The study emphasizes the importance of social contexts and adopts a mixed‐methods approach. Quantitative analysis of the 2015 Chinese General Social Survey data shows that intentional activities, social attitudes, and social comparison are significantly associated with Chinese people's happiness after economic circumstances and sociodemographic characteristics have been taken into account as control variables. In addition, qualitative analysis of in‐depth interviews helps to contextualize the quantitative findings and to enrich the understanding of why these factors rather than income would play a more significant role in making people happy in China. This study demonstrates the value of investigating happiness across disciplinary boundaries and makes an empirical contribution to examining subjective well‐being in contemporary society.