Gender Rules Research Articles

Equal Representation: Challenges and Opportunities

This article explores the contours of the highly politicised and gendered spaces in Kenya that female aspirant leaders still struggle to overcome in order to participate fully as citizens. It aims to highlight the exclusionary nature of the political and democratic space in Kenya, notwithstanding constitutional and legal provisions for gender equity. We argue that enjoying a simple majority in terms of overall population figures (50.1%) has not necessarily translated into political capital for Kenyan women, who are perpetually locked out of meaningful political participation due to entrenched patriarchy and sexism. The introduction of political affirmative action through the two-thirds gender rule augmented female representation in parliamentary and other public and legislative offices. This was also meant to regulate the monopoly of any one gender in the occupation of political and public positions. The article utilises secondary data and related theories in supporting the argument that the insignificant number of female parliamentarians is, inter alia, a result of entrenched and skewed power relations. Outdated cultural practices, gender stereotypes, negative rhetoric and ethnicity, patriarchy, and a lack of economic and social capital have indeed adversely affected women’s trajectory in politics. Results of the past two elections (2013 and 2017) have indicated that gender skewing in parliament and other competitive positions in the public service is still an issue to reckon with. This, we observe, is tantamount to non-compliance with constitutional and legal provisions that were geared toward achieving an equal society. We suggest the implementation of the gender rule as envisaged in the 2010 Constitution. A conducive legal framework, coupled with collaborative efforts of relevant state and non-state actors, is paramount. A significant and current discussion should encompass new realignments aimed at disrupting and deconstructing the pervasive gendered relationships.

Ideology, Subject and Gender: Undoing Representations in the Thought of Teresa De Lauretis and Judith Butler

In Louis Althusser’s conception of ideology, the subject is linked to gender rules. However, the answer to the question of why there is a collaboration between ideology, subject, and gender is not found in Althusser. Political subjectivity and political struggle therefore remain trapped in class debates for Althusser. Judith Butler and Teresa De Lauretis, similarly situated in their understanding of subject, gender, and politics, extend Althusser’s perspective on ideology and subject to the construction of gender and understand gender as a kind of ideology. By emphasising the outside of ideology, they disrupt the collaboration between ideology and subject. They extend the economic level, in which Althusser was trapped, to the whole of social life. In this way, they turn life and every encounter in life into a space of possibility for overcoming gender representations and political emancipation.

Men’s Contribution in Championing Women Leadership in Kenya: A Case Study of Nairobi County Assembly

This research project embarked on an analysis of men's historical contributions to championing women's leadership in Nairobi County, with a specific focus on the Nairobi County Assembly. The thesis hypothesized that meaningful contributions and advocacy by men could pave the way for achieving gender parity in political leadership. The primary objective was to scrutinize the efficacy of men's contributions in fortifying and sustaining women's leadership, prompted by the persistently low representation of women in political offices despite constitutional mandates like the one-third gender rule in Kenya. Informed by Social Identity Theory and Telic Theory, which shed light on shared identity dynamics and deliberate decision-making in influence and leadership, the study aimed to enhance the understanding of variables shaping the research questions. Methodologically, a comprehensive approach that amalgamated qualitative and quantitative methods was employed, drawing insights from primary and secondary sources. The study focused primarily on county assembly ward committees in Nairobi, the county government executive wing, the county assembly, the national gender commission, and two non-governmental organizations fervently advocating for women's leadership in Nairobi. Respondent selection adhered to a non-probability sampling technique, specifically utilizing a purposive sampling method. Descriptive statistical methods were applied for data processing and analysis. The findings highlighted the multifaceted nature of men's contributions, indicating varied levels of impact across different sectors. While some men played a pivotal role in fostering women's leadership, challenges and disparities persisted. In light of these findings, recommendations have been formulated to inform strategies and interventions aimed at strengthening women's participation and leadership within the intricate political landscape of Nairobi County. This study aspires to contribute to the broader discourse on achieving gender parity in political leadership, building upon the historical contributions and evolving dynamics of men's involvement in championing women's leadership.

The socio-political implication of participation and representation of Aembu women in political leadership in Embu County, Kenya, between 1952 and 2017

This study examined the sociopolitical ramifications of Aembu women's participation and representation in Kenya's political leadership up to 2017. Written history has documented male dominance in politics but not the involvement of women. The underrepresentation of women in political institutions, particularly among the Aembu of Kenya, has also received little from academics. The study was based on the assumption that Embu women participated in political leadership representation up until 1963, were represented in political leadership up until 1991, and were still represented in political leadership after Section 2A of the Kenyan Constitution was repealed. The technique for the study was a descriptive research design. The study was conducted at Mbeere in Embu. The snowballing technique was used to choose a deliberate sample of the respondents. A random sample of 50 Mbeere residents were interviewed. To guarantee the neutrality and trustworthiness of the study, oral sources, archival sources, and secondary sources were all utilised as data sources. Primary data was gathered utilising an interview schedule and from the national archives, whilst secondary data was acquired through thorough literature searches for trustworthy papers. According to the study's findings, increasing the presence of women among the Aembu calls for both regulatory changes and making sure the two-thirds gender rule is adhered to. The study concluded that the participation and representation of women in political leadership have had significant social and political implications in Embu County. This study has helped the political historiography of the area.

Unpacking Frailty and Gendered Rules of Sport: Women Cricketers’ Experiences of Practice and Play in Rajasthan, India

Sport has historically furthered the myth of female frailty by making it the basis for women’s exclusion from early participation, and hitherto, for inclusion on restricted conditions. The article focuses on the gendered rules of play in cricket which manifest materially by altering an object, the space and temporality of play translating into the use of a smaller ball within a shorter boundary and lesser hours of playtime for women in comparison to men. While the historical and existing justifications for each of the differences in rules revolve around varied meanings of what ‘being frail’ entails for women, the supposed easing of conditions is also expected to encourage and enable women to emulate men’s style of play, and hence, make their game ‘exciting’. Drawing from fieldwork and interviews of women cricketers who represent the state of Rajasthan (India) in the Board of Control for Cricket in India domestic tournaments, the article unpacks the on-ground manifestation of the three gendered rules to argue that the altered nature of play makes the women’s version more challenging and hence, distinct and separate from the men’s version and its valuations. Foregrounding women’s layered experiences, the article shows the way women play sport cannot be captured within the imposed binary logic of frail and non-frail.

Influence of Gender Mainstreaming Policy Implementation on Women Political Representation in Baringo County Assembly

Global advances have been made towards the recognition of the principle of women’s political, socio-economic and equity in governance. However, some counties, including Baringo have not fully implemented the gender rule as provided for in the Kenyan 2010 constitution, hence little has changed. This study sought to analyze the influence of gender mainstreaming policy implementation on women political representation in Baringo County Assembly. The study was guided by Equity Feministic Theory by Sommers (1994). The study used cross-sectional survey design and mixed method approach where both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis approaches were utilized. The target population was 2446 respondents comprising of employees, members of the County Assembly and Members of the Public Service Board. The sample size was based on Krejcie and Morgan (1970) where a sample size of 329 respondents was attained. Questionnaires, Interview guides and FGDs were used to collect data. The quantitative data were analysed using frequencies, percentages, mean and Standard deviation. Qualitative data were thematically classified and arranged before they were reported in narrations and quotations as per the research objectives. The study found out that there was a significant positive correlation between gender mainstreaming policy implementation on women political representation and women governance (r = .581; p = .000). The study recommends that there is need for streamlining of women appointment to senior positions in the county to allow for efficiency and inclusivity in governance.

The Help-Seeking Paradox: Gender and the Consequences of Using Career Reentry Assistance

This article examines how penalizing men who “do gender” in nonstereotypical ways ultimately maintains the gender system. Leveraging data from an online survey experiment conducted with hiring decision-makers, I develop and test a theory of a help-seeking paradox whereby managers are less likely to interview and hire fathers who used career reentry assistance (CRA) relative to fathers who did not. However, this penalty does not emerge for mothers. A second online survey experiment reveals that two years of full-time employment after reentry diminishes the negative effects of CRA for fathers. Nonetheless, lingering stigma from having previously left paid work for childcare continues to disadvantage fathers relative to mothers, with perceptions of competence and commitment mediating long-term effects. These studies demonstrate how the reinforcement of cultural gender rules punishes both mothers and fathers seeking more equitable career coordination while providing novel insight into the boundaries of penalties for men who violate gender stereotypes.

Gender: A World History by Susan Kingsley Kent, and: Gender Rules: Identity and Empire in Historical Perspective by Karen Phoenix (review)

Gender: A World History by Susan Kingsley Kent, and: Gender Rules: Identity and Empire in Historical Perspective by Karen Phoenix (review)

Gender rules in the community corrections context: Examining how case managers navigate trans client supervision in a binary setting

This article explores one US residential community corrections facility and the ways that case managers navigate working with transgender women under supervision in a facility that relies on the sex binary for housing placement. Similar to other research on this population in prisons that has been conducted both within and outside of the US context, we find that case managers contend with significant uncertainty in their work with these clients because of a lack of specific and formal training. To contend with that uncertainty, case managers reported relying on Gender Responsive Training and the Prison Rape Elimination Act to guide their understanding of and work with trans clients. However, we also found a great deal of discretion in the ways case managers managed programming for their trans clients that disrupted the gendered organization of the facility. We conclude with specific programmatic recommendations based on these findings.

Of Two Thirds Gender Rule and Supreme Court Composition: A Commentary on Court of Appeal Decision in Civil Appeal No 234 of 2017

Of Two Thirds Gender Rule and Supreme Court Composition: A Commentary on Court of Appeal Decision in Civil Appeal No 234 of 2017

A Educação de Pessoas Trans*: relatos de exclusão, abjeção e luta

ABSTRACT This article presents the results of an investigation about the processes of exclusion, abjection, and struggle from trans people* as an attempt to enforce their rights to education. The qualitative research was conducted drawing from five interviews and the analyses were organized in three axes: exclusion with the interruption of schooling; going back to school in adult life, and the new perspectives of life upon gaining access to and remaining at school. The results reveal students facing excluding processes who challenge gender rules regarding their right to education or, or even their right to live under situations of abjection. However, they also show ways to rethink gender relations in the struggle for accessing and remaining at a less excluding school.

Levels and sources of adolescents' sexual knowledge in traditional societies: A cross-sectional study.

Gender rules, patriarchy, and cultural taboos on sexual issues in traditional societies may compel adolescents to seek sexual information from informal and inadequate sources. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to determine whether the level and sources of sexual knowledge differed by gender in the traditional community comprising Palestinian-Israeli high school students. Guided by the Human Ecological Systems Model and informed by a community-based participatory research approach, a convenience sample of high school students (n= 558) was recruited. Although findings indicated that both boys and girls had low levels of sexual knowledge, the areas of knowledge deficits varied by gender. The model demonstrated good fit for boys but not for girls. Post hoc analyses indicated that girls obtained sexual knowledge solely from close family members, while boys obtained sexual knowledge from multiple sources. Very few students of either gender obtained sexual knowledge from doctors or nurses, but with community input on cultural issues, nurses can play a pivotal role in creating comprehensive, school-based sex education for adolescents living in traditional societies.

Influence of Politics on Women’s Participation in Social Development in Turkana Central Sub-County, Turkana County, Kenya

Women’s participation in social development is fundamental for accomplishing social equity as well as reducing poverty. Worldwide experience shows clearly that supporting a stronger role for women contributes to economic growth, improves child survival and overall family health, and reduces fertility, thus helping to slow population growth rates. However, data show that women are under-represented at all levels of decision-making worldwide and that achieving their goals becomes difficult without them being in politics to influence or push their agenda. Hence, the purpose of this study was to assess the influence of politics on women's participation in social development in Turkana Central Sub-County, Turkana County, Kenya. Liberalism and patriarchy theory was used to guide the study. The study targeted a total population of 630 from 31 women's registered organisations. The study sample was statistically calculated using a confidence level of 95%, a margin of error (confidence interval of 2%) and a population proportion of 50%, and a sampling frame of 500 was arrived at. Using a random selection of numbers in the interval of 5, the sample size obtained was 98. Questionnaires were used for data collection. Data analysis was done using both descriptive and inferential statistical methods. The descriptive analysis involved the use of frequency, %ages, means and standard deviations, while inferential statistics involved the use of linear regression analysis to measure the relationship between variables. It was found out that political class considered women's participation in development, and according to it, women were considered to be equal to men politically. It was also noted that we have women in community development projects that vie for elective positions and that the political class considered the participation of women in social development. The study further observed that the county assembly had fulfilled the affirmative action of the two-thirds gender rule. The study findings concluded that women's participation in social development was positively correlated to politics. From the study, it is recommended that the public authority should give equivalent freedom to women and men regarding political space and that the climate ought to be favourable for women to take part in political exercises.

The Role of Patriarchy, Women’s Participation in Electing a Woman into Top Political Leadership of Kenya

Leadership is not only contextual, but it’s also significantly influenced by the patriarchal society. Unequivocally there is no consensus as to why women are underrepresented in the top echelons of the country. Since its inception, the Kenyan government patriarchy has taken the center stage and even the women who fought for independence were never considered for leadership but were relegated to the periphery. The 2022 general elections in Kenya come at a time when the two-third gender rule has never been implemented. Even with Maraga ruling that the president dissolves parliament for failing to implement the two-thirds gender rule, it was also unheeded. On the other hand, the patriarchal government has presented and nominated a woman for the position of Deputy President in the Azimio coalition. This is a position that has been received with mixed feelings, some with celebration and others with disgust. This disgust is based on their particular inclination. The question remains was she put there with good faith, or it’s just to become a stepladder to help the Azimio coalition to gain mirage? Bearing in mind the entrenchment of the patriarchal ideologies in most tribes in Kenya will men vote for a woman in the office of the deputy president in Kenya? These are the issues feminist leaders are wrestling with. The purpose of this paper is to establish the barriers that hinder women from being elected to the top echelon of the leadership of this country, and secondly, to discuss the role of patriarchy in keeping women away from the decision-making table and the top leadership of the nation. The paper provides a solution to enhancing women’s election into the top leadership in Kenya. It suggests that men must champion the election of a woman into top leadership. It contributes toward breaking the glass ceiling and political gender inequality, and suggests inclusivity as a way forward in having a woman in the top leadership of a country. Also, the partnership between men and women to support and elect a woman leader is a prerogative. Breaking the glass ceiling and electing a woman to the top leadership position of being the deputy president in Kenya brings hope and inspiration not only to the Kenyan women but also to the whole society.

Harder Won and Easier Lost? Testing the Double Standard in Gender Rules in 62 Countries

Harder Won and Easier Lost? Testing the Double Standard in Gender Rules in 62 Countries

Gendered Barriers and Opportunities for Women Smallholder Farmers in the Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia Vaccine Value Chain in Kenya.

Simple SummarySmall animals such as goats, sheep and chickens are an important source of income for rural livelihoods, especially for women farmers in Africa, because they are able to control the resources that come from the sale of these animals. However, one of the biggest problems they face is livestock diseases, even when vaccines are available. In Kenya, Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) is a highly infectious disease of goats with a mortality rate of more than 70%. A vaccine for CCPP is available but difficult to access by women in the rural areas. This study examines the gaps and barriers that prevent women smallholder farmers from effectively accessing and adopting CCPP vaccination for their animals in the Machakos district of Kenya. Our results indicate that key constraints to vaccine access and adoption for rural smallholder women farmers are lack of a cold chain for vaccine maintenance, inadequate and late delivery of veterinary services, lack of information and training, and limited financial capacity to purchase the vaccine. If more resources, information, and training is made available to women smallholder farmers through government or the private sector, there would be improved livestock productivity, better livelihoods, and increased opportunities and agency for women.Most rural women smallholder farmers in Kenya generate income from the sale of small ruminant animals. However, diseases such as Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) prevent them from optimizing earnings. A crucial aspect for the control of CCPP is vaccination. In Kenya, CCPP vaccines are distributed through a government delivery mechanism. This study examines gaps and barriers that prevent women smallholder farmers from accessing CCPP vaccines. Qualitative data collection tools used were focus groups discussions, focus meals, jar voices and key informant interviews. Using outcome mapping (OM) methodology, critical partners and stakeholders in the CCPP vaccine value chain (CCPP-VVC) were identified to be the manufacturers, importers, distributors, agrovets, public and private veterinarians, local leaders, and farmers. Respondents highlighted the barriers to be limited access to vaccines due to cold chain problems, inadequate and late delivery of services, lack of information and training on vaccines, and financial constraints. Identified opportunities that can support women’s engagement in the CCPP-VVC are the Kenya Governments two-third gender rule, which requires that not more than two thirds of the members of elective or appointive bodies shall be of the same gender, and positive community perception of female veterinarians. We conclude that more resources and training should be made available to women farmers, and that gender perspectives on policy development related to livestock production and disease prevention are urgently needed to improve livestock productivity and increase agency for women.

THE BLAME GAME ?: Analysis of the 2/3 Gender Rule vis-a-vis the role of the Legislature to give effect to the Gender Principle.

THE BLAME GAME ?: Analysis of the 2/3 Gender Rule vis-a-vis the role of the Legislature to give effect to the Gender Principle.

Strategic flexibility in a male-dominated occupation: women software engineers in China

ABSTRACT This article builds on a rich literature on the gender gap in software engineering. It further contextualizes the gendering of development work in the Chinese high-tech industry, especially the prevalent overwork norm. The perpetuation of male ascendency is achieved through the gendered hierarchization of subspecialties in software engineering and the embodiment of the geek culture. Nevertheless, women show their resilience and strength in navigating their careers in this male-dominated occupation. This article reveals female programmers’ strategies: flexible assimilation, flexible embodiment, and flexible career development. By this strategic flexibility, the article highlights women’s agency in tactically negotiating gender rules and transgressing gender boundaries in a male-dominated occupation.

“Женский вопрос” в драматургии Тэффи

Teffi started working on the “woman question” in her very first dramatic works. In Там (There) and Дамы (Ladies) (both 1905), she critically discusses the vulgarization and oversimplification of the problem that reduces it to a fashion or popular commodity. Женский вопрос (The Woman Question) (1906), discusses the issue in greater detail. From that time on, the question surfaces in almost all her plays; nevertheless, the writer’s approach to it does evolve. In her pre-revolutionary works, Teffi reveals the one-sidedness and absurdity of the ways in which feminists and misogynists deal with the issue; she tends to focus on comic situations. Later, Teffi’s émigré plays reflect archetypes and gender rules imposed by society. In Момент судьбы (Moment of Fate) (1937) and Ничего подобного (Nothing of the Kind) (1939), the young female characters are represented lyrically and call to mind the concept of The Eternal Feminine apparently saved by the Logos, embodied here by a rich pretender. The fact that the salvation of the heroines happens only by chance indicates that Teffi perceives futility in the struggle for women’s equality. Her disagreement with the existing order goes hand in hand with a focus on eternal values like human affection, love, and tenderness. This is also evident in Старинный романс (An Old Romance) (1938).

Relationships with opposite-gender peers: the ‘fine line’ between an acceptable and unacceptable ‘liking’ amongst children in a Chinese rural primary school

ABSTRACT This article offers new empirical data examining how Chinese children construct their understandings of heterosexuality and opposite-gender relationships with school peers. Gender differences and separation between girls and boys are commonly argued to be a ‘gender rule’ central to children’s peer cultures at school. However, this is rarely explored from children’s perspectives in China’s relatively conservative school context. Drawing on rural primary school ethnographic fieldwork with children aged 11–13 and teachers in mid-West China, the research unearthed children’s curiosity about opposite-gender relationships and unpacks how their articulation of a ‘fine line’ between acceptable ‘liking’ and unacceptable ‘liking’ between boys and girls sits within school cultures. These are evidently shaped by Chinese socio-cultural norms and teachers’ conservative attitudes towards gender. This causes children to paradoxically experience both curiosity and anxiety around romance and practicing heterosexual relationships in school. Significantly improving sexuality and relationship education in the conservative Chinese school context is also discussed.