Gasoline-fueled Vehicles Research Articles

Charging the Future: Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Vehicle Adoption

Electric vehicles (EVs) have advanced significantly this decade, owing in part to decreasing battery costs. Yet EVs remain more costly than gasoline fueled vehicles over their useful life. This paper analyzes the additional advances that will be needed, if electric vehicles are to significantly penetrate the passenger vehicle fleet.

A study of CO2 emission reduction due to transportation activities in Brebes district through road repair

Global climate change has prompted the Government of the Republic of Indonesia to commit to an active role and participation in the attempt of reducing Greenhouse Gas (GRK) emission through a national action program. One of the biggest sectors contributing in the production of GRK is transportation. Meanwhile, the condition of roads also affect the speed of vehicles. This study analyzed the relationship between road condition and travel speed, and the resulting CO2 emission. This research was conducted by taking some class III roads in Brebes as samples. The stages of this study include assessing the road condition by using the PCI method, calculating the average speed of vehicle on each sample road, and from the data of travel speed, the value of CO2 emission was then calculated using IPCC method. The result of this study indicated that the road condition is the factor that affects the travel speed. Increasing the value of PCI by 10 points from the lowest value will reduce CO2 emissions by 3.36% for gasoline-fueled vehicles. This research suggests improving the road condition in Brebes district in order to support Local Action Plan for Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction.

ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLARIN MEVCUT DURUMU, TERCİH EDİLME VE EDİLMEME SEBEPLERİ

Elektrikli araçlar dünyada 1880?li yıllardan itibaren kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. İlk zamanlarda benzin yakıtlı araçlar ile rekabet eden elektrikli araçlar, benzinli araçların seri üretime geçerek çok düşük fiyatlardan satılmaları üzerine piyasadan çekilmiştir. 1990?lı yıllarda fosil yakıtların çevreye olan zararlı etkileri nedeniyle bu araçlar tekrar gündeme gelmiştir. Hem konvansiyonel fosil yakıtlı motor, hem de elektrikli motor (batarya) barındıran araçlara uluslararası literatürde ?hibrit araç? denilmektedir. Ülkemizde son yıllarda kullanıma girmeye başlayan bu araçlar için bu isim yaygın olarak kullanılsa da bazı yerlerde kelimenin Türkçesi kullanılarak ?melez araç? ifadesi tercih edilmektedir.

A consistent conceptual framework for applying climate metrics in technology life cycle assessment

Comparing the potential climate impacts of different technologies is challenging for several reasons, including the fact that any given technology may be associated with emissions of multiple greenhouse gases when evaluated on a life cycle basis. In general, analysts must decide how to aggregate the climatic effects of different technologies, taking into account differences in the properties of the gases (differences in atmospheric lifetimes and instantaneous radiative efficiencies) as well as different technology characteristics (differences in emission factors and technology lifetimes). Available metrics proposed in the literature have incorporated these features in different ways and have arrived at different conclusions. In this paper, we develop a general framework for classifying metrics based on whether they measure: (a) cumulative or end point impacts, (b) impacts over a fixed time horizon or up to a fixed end year, and (c) impacts from a single emissions pulse or from a stream of pulses over multiple years. We then use the comparison between compressed natural gas and gasoline-fueled vehicles to illustrate how the choice of metric can affect conclusions about technologies. Finally, we consider tradeoffs involved in selecting a metric, show how the choice of metric depends on the framework that is assumed for climate change mitigation, and suggest which subset of metrics are likely to be most analytically self-consistent.

Efficacy of Recent Emissions Controls on Road Vehicles in Europe and Implications for Public Health

Road traffic is a major source of urban air pollution responsible for substantial premature mortality. Until recently, attention has focussed primarily on exhaust emissions of particulate matter from traffic as a causal factor. From analysis of air quality measurement data from the UK and France, we demonstrate that road traffic exhaust has a far greater impact on concentrations of nitrogen dioxide than of PM2.5. PM2.5 and carbonaceous particle concentrations have been declining appreciably since 2010/11 due to the use of diesel particle filters, but little change is seen in nitrogen dioxide over the period from 1995 to 2015. It is shown that the effect of NO2 from road traffic upon premature mortality was ten-fold greater than that of PM2.5 even before the widespread use of diesel particle filters, and is now considerably larger. The overwhelming contribution of diesel compared to gasoline-fuelled vehicles to emissions of both PM2.5 and NO2 emphasises the importance of further controls on emissions from diesels.

Characterizations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from vehicular emissions at roadside environment: The first comprehensive study in Northwestern China

Vehicular emission (VE) is one of the important anthropogenic sources for ground-level volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in both urban and suburban areas. A first comprehensive campaign was conducted at an urban roadside in Xi'an, China in summer, 2016. A total of 57 VOCs, as known as critical surface ozone (O3) precursors, and other trace gases were measured simultaneously during the sampling period. Iso-pentane, a tracer of gasoline evaporation, was the most abundant VOC in the roadside samples, followed by isobutane and benzene, attributed to the largest composition (∼70%) of gasoline-fueled vehicles on the road. The molar ratio of toluene/benzene (T/B) in our study (0.36) is far lower than the range reported in other cities, indicating the stronger contributions from diesel emissions. The results of source apportionment achieved with positive matrix factorization (PMF) receptor model were highly consistent with the vehicles compositions, strongly evidenced that the precise characterization of the VE sources from those marker species. The degrees of individual compound contributed to O3 production were weighed by ozone formation potential (OFP). Propylene (20%), 1-butene (11%) and iso-pentane(10%) were the top three contributors at the roadside. The information of this study complements the VOCs database regarding to the VE sources in Northwestern China.

Development and Testing of the Ultera® Dual Stage Catalyst System on Gasoline-Fueled Light Duty Vehicles (LDV’s)

Development and Testing of the Ultera^® Dual Stage Catalyst System on Gasoline-Fueled Light Duty Vehicles (LDV’s)

Solving the Multivariant EV Routing Problem Incorporating V2G and G2V Options

In the near future, gasoline-fueled vehicles are expected to be replaced by electrical vehicles (EVs) to save energy and reduce carbon emissions. A large penetration of EVs threatens the stability of the electric grid but also provides a potential for grid ancillary services, which strengthens the grid, if well managed. This paper incorporates grid-to-vehicle (G2V) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) options in the travel path of logistics sector EVs. The paper offers a complete solution methodology to the multivariant EV routing problem rather than considering only one or two variants of the problem like in previous research. The variants considered include a stochastic environment, multiple dispatchers, time window constraints, simultaneous and nonsimultaneous pickup and delivery, and G2V and V2G service options. Stochastic demand forecasts of the G2V and V2G services at charging stations are modeled using hidden Markov model. The developed solver is based on a modified custom genetic algorithm incorporated with embedded Markov decision process and trust region optimization methods. An agent-based communication architecture is adopted to ensure peer-to-peer correspondence capability of the EV, customer, charging station, and dispatcher entities. The results indicate that optimal route for EVs can be achieved while satisfying all constraints and providing V2G ancillary grid service.

Passenger vehicles that minimize the costs of ownership and environmental damages in the Indian market

Rapid expansion of population and income growth in developing countries, such as India, is increasing the demand for many goods and services, including four-wheeled passenger cars. Passenger cars provide personal mobility; however, they also have negative implications for human wellbeing from increased air pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHG). Here, we evaluate the range of passenger vehicles available in the Indian market to identify options that minimize costs, human health effects and climate damages. Our approach is to compare alternative fuel/powertrain vehicles with similar conventional gasoline fueled vehicles and assess the differences in full (private and societal) costs for each pair. Private costs are the combination of capital costs and the discounted expected future fuel costs over the vehicle lifetime. The costs to human health from air quality are calculated using intake fractions to estimate exposure and literature values for the damage costs adjusted by benefits transfer methods. We use the Social Cost of Carbon to estimate climate damages. We find that, on average, the net present value (NPV) of the full costs of compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles are lower than comparable gasoline vehicles, while, diesel vehicles have higher costs. Presently, electric vehicles have higher private costs (due to high capital costs) and societal costs (due to electricity generation emissions). Either a less carbon intensive electricity grid or an increase in the CNG fleet would minimize total costs, human health effects and GHG emissions from the passenger vehicle fleet. Policy makers should consider promoting the use of CNG vehicles, although this would require supporting infrastructure improvements.

Development of fast fabrication method for cylindrical-shaped grids and mechanical properties of CFRP pressure vessel reinforced with cylindrical-shaped grids

In order to reduce carbon dioxide and air pollution emissions, fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) are being developed, and CFRP pressure vessels have been used as the hydrogen storage systems for the FCVs. Since the FCVs are expected to increase driving distances of at least over 500 km, which is similar to those of conventional gasoline-fueled vehicles, the storage pressure of hydrogen must be raised from 35 to 70 MPa. It is important to decrease the amount of carbon fibers in order to reduce the cost and weight of the CFRP pressure vessels. In this study, a fast fabrication method for the cylindrical-shaped grids (CSG) composed of hoop stiffeners and helical stiffeners was developed with a particular mandrel and a 3-axis filament winding apparatus. Then, the CFRP pressure vessel was inserted into the CSG, and burst tests of the CFRP pressure vessels reinforced with and without the CSG were conducted. Moreover, their experimental results were compared with numerical ones obtained by a FEM analysis, and the mechanical properties and the reinforcement effects of the CFRP pressure vessels reinforced with the CSG were investigated.

Tailpipe emissions from gasoline direct injection (GDI) and port fuel injection (PFI) vehicles at both low and high ambient temperatures

Vehicle emissions are greatly influenced by various factors that are related to engine technology and driving conditions. Only the fuel injection method and ambient temperature are investigated in this research. Regulated gaseous and particulate matter (PM) emissions from two advanced gasoline-fueled vehicles, one with direct fuel injection (GDI) and the other with port fuel injection (PFI), are tested with conventional gasoline and ethanol-blended gasoline (E10) at both −7 °C and 30 °C. The total particle number (PN) concentrations and size distributions are monitored with an Electrical Low Pressure Impactor (ELPI+). The solid PN concentrations are measured with a condensation particle counter (CPC) after removing volatile matters through the particle measurement program (PMP) system. The results indicate that decreasing the ambient temperature from 30 °C to −7 °C significantly increases the fuel consumption and all measured emissions except for NOx. The GDI vehicle exhibits lower fuel consumption than the PFI vehicle but emits more total hydrocarbons (THC), PM mass and solid PN emissions at 30 °C. The adaptability of GDI technology appears to be better than that of PFI technology at low ambient temperature. For example, the CO, THC and PM mass emission factors of the PFI vehicle are higher than those of the GDI vehicle and the solid PN emission factors are comparable in the cold-start tests at −7 °C. Specifically, during start-up the particulate matter emissions of the PFI are much higher than the GDI. In most cases, the geometric mean diameter (GMD) of the accumulation mode particles is 58–86 nm for both vehicles, and the GMD of the nucleation mode particles is 10–20 nm. The results suggest that the gaseous and particulate emissions from the PFI vehicle should not be neglected compared to those from the GDI vehicle especially in a cold environment.

Chemical composition of PM2.5 from two tunnels with different vehicular fleet characteristics

The chemical compositions of PM2.5 including OC, EC, water soluble ions, elements, and organic components such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), hopanes, and steranes, emitted in Wuzushan (WZS) and Kuixinglou (KXL) tunnels were determined. WZS tunnel is a major route for diesel vehicles traveling, while KXL tunnel has limited to diesel vehicles. The results showed that the proportions of the different constituents of PM2.5 in the Wuzushan (WZS) tunnel were OC (27.7%), EC (32.1%), elements (13.9%), and water soluble ions (9.2%). Whereas the chemical profile of PM2.5 in the Kuixinglou (KXL) tunnel was OC (17.7%), EC (10.4%), elements (8.90%), and water soluble ions (8.87%). The emission factors (EFs) of PM2.5 and proportions of SO42− and Pb were decreased by vehicle emission standards and fuel quality policy in China, and the higher molecular weight PAHs (4+5+6 rings) were more abundant than the lower molecular weight PAHs (2+3 rings) in the two tunnels. The proportions of 17A(H)-21B(H)-30-Norhopane and 17A(H)-21B(H)-Hopane in the hopane and sterane were not dependent on the vehicles types. In addition, specific composition profiles for PM2.5 from gasoline-fueled vehicles (GV) and diesel-fueled vehicles (DV) emissions were drafted, which indicated that OC (0.974mg·veh−1·km−1) was the most abundant component in PM2.5, followed by Fe, Cl−, and Mg for GV. The relative proportions of the different constituents in the PM2.5 for DV were EC (35.9%), OC (27.2%), elements (12.8%), and water soluble ions (11.7%). Both the PM2.5 EFs and EC proportions in DV were higher than those in GV, and the HMW PAHs were the dominant PAHs for both GV and DV. The PM2.5 emissions from the vehicles in Yantai were 581±513tons to 1353±1197tons for GV, and 19,627±2477tons to 23,042±2887tons for DV, respectively.

Cost Effective Electrochemical Energy Storage Today and Tomorrow: Promising Pathways to $100 per k Wh

Cost effective electrochemical energy storage is the key to unlocking the future potential of zero emission automobiles and a stable electricity grid that utilizes large fractions of inherently variable renewable sources of power. Lithium-ion battery costs are continuing on a downward trajectory that has enabled automakers around the world to produce battery electric vehicles and sell them at moderate to high prices. The steeply declining cost curve has also enabled this technology to spill-over into early, high-value segments of energy storage on the electricity grid. As the push-pull between technology and marketplace continues, lithium-ion and other established battery chemistries will fight for dominance with gasoline fueled vehicles in transportation and with inexpensive and efficient combined cycle gas turbines in large scale grid storage applications. Concurrently, scientists and engineers around the world are racing to build cheaper, longer-lived, more energy dense batteries based on new chemistries. These promising new beyond lithium ion storage technologies with higher performance and lower costs are seen as necessary to enable a true renaissance in the way society utilizes electricity. Cost structures for historical and projected battery technologies will be presented. Pathways to achieve a battery level price of $100/kWh will be shown in terms of materials level performance and cost targets to guide researchers and policy makers.

International experience with compressed natural gas (CNG) as environmental friendly fuel

Environmental concerns relating to gaseous emissions from transport have led to growth in the use of compressed natural gas (CNG) as transportation fuel worldwide with over 19 million natural gas vehicles (NGVs) currently in operation. This paper reviews the environmental advantages of natural gas fuel, presenting laboratory and real world comparative emission performance of NGVs with diesel and gasoline fueled vehicles. The aim is to clarify the worldwide experience of NGVs in terms of various emission factors i.e. CO\(_{2}\), CO, NO\(_\mathrm{x}\), NMHC and PM. The paper provides a critical analysis of information collected and draws general conclusions on the world-wide NGVs experience. The results reveal that CNG in public transportation can contribute to the improvement of urban air, reduce adverse health effects and social costs of air pollution. It was observed that on a well-to-wheels basis, CNG produce less greenhouse gases as compared to conventional gasoline and diesel vehicles. The results showed that there is large variation in the resulted NMHC emission data of CNG fuel. Some studies reveal that CNG can significantly reduce NMHC emission while other concluded that CNG increase the NHMC emission.

Ensemble-based source apportionment of fine particulate matter and emergency department visits for pediatric asthma.

Epidemiologic studies utilizing source apportionment (SA) of fine particulate matter have shown that particles from certain sources might be more detrimental to health than others; however, it is difficult to quantify the uncertainty associated with a given SA approach. In the present study, we examined associations between source contributions of fine particulate matter and emergency department visits for pediatric asthma in Atlanta, Georgia (2002-2010) using a novel ensemble-based SA technique. Six daily source contributions from 4 SA approaches were combined into an ensemble source contribution. To better account for exposure uncertainty, 10 source profiles were sampled from their posterior distributions, resulting in 10 time series with daily SA concentrations. For each of these time series, Poisson generalized linear models with varying lag structures were used to estimate the health associations for the 6 sources. The rate ratios for the source-specific health associations from the 10 imputed source contribution time series were combined, resulting in health associations with inflated confidence intervals to better account for exposure uncertainty. Adverse associations with pediatric asthma were observed for 8-day exposure to particles generated from diesel-fueled vehicles (rate ratio = 1.06, 95% confidence interval: 1.01, 1.10) and gasoline-fueled vehicles (rate ratio = 1.10, 95% confidence interval: 1.04, 1.17).

Reliability Evaluation of a Distribution Network with Microgrid Based on a Combined Power Generation System

Distributed generation (DG), battery storage (BS) and electric vehicles (EVs) in a microgrid constitute the combined power generation system (CPGS). A CPGS can be applied to achieve a reliable evaluation of a distribution network with microgrids. To model charging load and discharging capacity, respectively, the EVs in a CPGS can be divided into regular EVs and ruleless EVs, according to their driving behavior. Based on statistical data of gasoline-fueled vehicles and the probability distribution of charging start instant and charging time, a statistical model can be built to describe the charging load and discharging capacity of ruleless EVs. The charge and discharge curves of regular EVs can also be drawn on the basis of a daily dispatch table. The CPGS takes the charge and discharge curves of EVs, daily load and DG power generation into consideration to calculate its power supply time during islanding. Combined with fault duration, the power supply time during islanding will be used to analyze and determine the interruption times and interruption duration of loads in islands. Then the Sequential Monte Carlo method is applied to complete the reliability evaluation of the distribution system. The RBTS Bus 4 test system is utilized to illustrate the proposed technique. The effects on the system reliability of BS capacity and V2G technology, driving behavior, recharging mode and penetration of EVs are all investigated.

국내 데이터를 고려한 전기 자동차 충전 시 순시전압강하에 관한 연구

In order to charge EVs, they have to be connected to distribution system. Therefore, if unprecedented numbers of EVs are connected to power systems, it could result in deterioration of power quality, overload, and other system problems. In this paper, the effects of voltage sag on the distribution system due to the connection of EVs is evaluated by considering related field data of Republic of Korea such as the number of gasoline-fueled vehicles, seasonal load of power system and the monthly and daily real-time traffic volume. The distribution system and EVs are modeled using the Electro Magnetic Transients Program (EMTP).

Characterisation and Source Apportionment of Submicron Particle Number Size Distributions in a Busy Street Canyon

Street canyons are well-known hot spots due to the harmful exposure to high concentrations of atmospheric pollutants emitted mainly by motor vehicles. We report on measurements of air pollutants conducted in a street canyon in Stockholm (Sweden) in spring 2006. Particle number size distributions (PNSD) were measured in the 25-606 nm range, along with total particle number, light-absorbing carbon mass concentration (MLAC), PM10, NOx, CO, traffic rate (TR), vehicle speed and meteorological variables. We used PNSD as input to the positive matrix factorisation (PMF) analysis to identify and apportion the pollutant sources. All pollutants showed distinct diurnal patterns, with highest concentrations in weekday mornings (08:00-09:00). TR was always higher on weekdays, except for the early hours (00:00-06:00). The raise in the weekend early-hour TR was accompanied by the largest MLAC of the day, a higher NOx/CO ratio compared to weekdays and a modal shift of PNSD towards larger diameters (47-56 nm), indicates a change in the vehicle fleet share to being dominated by diesel-run taxis. The largest contribution to the submicron particles was observed for winds blowing along the canyon, transporting particles emitted by vehicles accelerating from the traffic lights at the intersection, uphill towards the measurement site, and from the nearby streets. Three PMF factors were identified: local emissions from a mixed fleet dominated by gasoline engines, local traffic emissions highly impacted by diesel vehicles, and urban background aerosol. On average, gasoline-fuelled vehicles largely contributed to NOx, and particle number concentrations (54-65%), whereas MLAC sources were dominated by diesel emissions, especially at weekends in the early hours (73%). The urban background contribution was rather low (4-13%) and with little dependence on the weekday. This work demonstrated how particle size distribution measurements, together with MLAC, NOx and CO can be used to quantify the contribution from diesel and gasoline vehicles.

Analysis of Benzene Exposure Levels on Commuters Traveling within the Metropolitan Area of Costa Rica

This study reports the benzene exposure levels of commuters traveling within the metropolitan area of Costa Rica using personal cars, buses, and urban trains. 47 in-vehicle samples were col- lected in the 2014 wet season under three different driving conditions: rush hour traffic, normal traffic and weekends. Samples were collected in Tedlar bags and analyzed using 75 µm carboxen- polydimethylsiloxane (CAR/PDMS) and gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC- FID). Additionally, duplicate samples were collected on adsorption tubes filled with Tenax TA and analyzed by thermal desorption (TD) and GC-FID. Results indicate that travelling in cars and buses under rush hour conditions exposes commuters to statistically equal average benzene concentra- tion of 48.7 and 51.6 µg/m3, respectively. Average benzene levels in urban trains (33.0 µg/m3) were measured only during morning rush hours. Greater benzene levels in buses than personal cars concentrations may be attributable to the immersion of traffic-related emission within the bus ca- bins. Factors, such as the driving pattern, the number of vehicles on the route, the road infrastruc- ture, and the prevalence of gasoline-fueled vehicles in Costa Rica, may increase ambient benzene concentrations. Benzene levels inside car cabins reported in this study are in the range of those reported in other urban areas; however, the corresponding concentrations inside buses and urban trains (rush hour only) are higher than previously published exposure levels.

Real-time measurements of PM2.5, PM10–2.5, and BC in an urban street canyon

A continuous dichotomous beta gauge monitor was used to characterize the hourly content of PM2.5, PM10–2.5, and Black Carbon (BC) over a 12-month period in an urban street canyon of Hong Kong. Hourly vehicle counts for nine vehicle classes and meteorological data were also recorded. The average weekly cycles of PM2.5, PM10–2.5, and BC suggested that all species are related to traffic, with high concentrations on workdays and low concentrations over the weekends. PM2.5 exhibited two comparable concentrations at 10:00–11:00 (63.4μg/m3) and 17:00–18:00 (65.0μg/m3) local time (LT) during workdays, corresponding to the hours when the numbers of diesel-fueled and gasoline-fueled vehicles were at their maximum levels: 3179 and 2907h−1, respectively. BC is emitted mainly by diesel-fueled vehicles and this showed the highest concentration (31.2μg/m3) during the midday period (10:00–11:00 LT) on workdays. A poor correlation was found between PM2.5 concentration and wind speed (R=0.51, P-value>0.001). In contrast, the concentration of PM10–2.5 was found to depend upon wind speed and it increased with obvious statistical significance as wind speed increased (R=0.98, P-value<0.0001).