Gas Engine Research Articles

CO2 emission mitigation of a hybrid photovoltaic and cogeneration system in computer hardware manufacturing industry: A case study in Thailand

Abstract In the wake of COP26 and the growing urgency of addressing climate change, achieving carbon neutrality by 2050 has become a central global objective. This imperative extends to industries like computer hardware manufacturing, which are now actively pursuing decarbonization strategies through the strategic adoption of renewable energy sources and energy efficiency enhancements. This research paper assessed the CO2 emission mitigation potential of a hybrid system of photovoltaic (PV) roof and cogeneration where a large factory of computer hardware manufacturing in tropical Thailand was selected as a study site. On one hand, a one-Megawatt photovoltaic system was installed over the roof of the production building to generate electricity from solar radiation to serve the building. On the other hand, a twenty-four-Megawatt cogeneration system of gas engines as the prime mover was used to supply power to meet the building’s electricity demand. Waste heat from the gas engine was used by the absorption chiller to generate chilled water for cooling inside the building. Based on the system equipment specifications, the annual simulation using Thailand’s solar radiation showed that the installed photovoltaic system could generate electricity of 1,412.4 MWhelec/year while the implementation of the absorption chillers for cooling helped to reduce the electrical energy consumed by the traditional electric chiller by 10,211.4 MWhelec/year. In our study case where the CO2 emission of the grid power was 0.4758 kgCO2/kWhelec in the year 2022 and was reduced to 0.350 kgCO2/kWhelec in the year 2050, the total CO2 emission mitigation from the hybrid photovoltaic and cogeneration system with the genset efficiency of 50% and the waste heat recovery of 60% could reduce approximately 207,388.5TonCO2 for over 20 years as compared to the scenario where the grid electricity alone powered the building. These findings underscored the critical role of the proposed hybrid system in addressing the climate crisis and exemplified how the industry could make meaningful strides toward more environmental sustainability.

From hydratable alumina bonded high chrome castables to shaped product for coal water slurry gasifier

The gasifier is a key equipment of coal gasification technology, enabling efficient and clean utilization of coal resources. However, the aluminum phosphate bonded high chrome brick lining in the gasifier experienced premature failure due to the migration of phosphate in reducing gases such as H2 and CO, as well as increased slag penetration and thermal spalling. In this study, a high chrome castable was prepared using hydratable alumina as a binder and fired at 1600 ℃ to replace the traditional phosphate bonded high chrome brick. The impact of curing temperatures (25℃, 40 ℃, and 60 ℃) on the properties of the high chrome castable was investigated, with corresponding hydrates examined through XRD, FTIR, TG-DSC, and SEM analyses. Results revealed that higher curing temperatures accelerated the hydration process of hydratable alumina. At higher curing temperatures, more well-developed micro-nano sized boehmite and bayerite phases were formed within the castables, filling their pores effectively and enhancing their properties after drying at 110 ℃. Moreover, during heat treatment these micro-nano sized hydrates decomposed into submicron/nano sized alumina which readily reacted with Cr2O3 to form (Cr-Al)2O3 solid solution. This phenomenon facilitated the sintering of castables fired at 1600 ℃ and optimized internal structure, ultimately leading to the enhanced mechanical properties and improved slag resistance.

MFIX–DEM simulation of gas-solid flow dynamics in a dual fluidized bed system

Abstract To overcome the operational difficulties associated with bubbling and circulating fluidized bed gasifiers, a new gasification technology termed dual fluidized bed gasification (DFBG) has evolved. To strengthen the understanding of the gasification and combustion processes in the DFBG system, a thorough analysis of bed hydrodynamics is of paramount importance. Furthermore, the complexity of the hydrodynamics escalates while incorporating diverse fuels like biomass and coal, along with bed materials fluidized in a single reactor due to its nonlinearity and transience. As a result, the study of hydrodynamics in such a system is indispensable. The present study focuses on the discrete element model (DEM) simulation of the bed hydrodynamic behaviour within the gasifier of a DFBG system. The simulation was conducted using Multiphase Flow with Interphase eXchanges (MFiX) software. The influence of superficial velocity on the number of particles in a gasifier was analyzed using the 2-D discrete element model (DEM). In this numerical investigation, transient variation of pressure drop, axial and radial solid volume fraction, and particle velocity was evaluated, and the data were analyzed using the ParaView software. The simulation results of the gasifier indicated an increase in the bed pressure drop with the rise in inlet air velocity. The effective height of solid volume fraction also increased with the surge in superficial velocity. The solid velocity profile and streamlines were also investigated to understand its variation pertaining to the location within the fluidized bed.

Теоретические исследования процесса топливоподачи газового двигателя

This article is devoted to theoretical studies of the fuel supply process of a gas engine. It examines the main aspects of the functioning of the fuel supply system, the influence of fuel supply parameters on the efficiency of the engine, as well as problems and solutions. The authors analyze various theoretical models, describe the basic principles of fuel injection systems and discuss current trends in the development of this field. The article is intended for specialists in the field of automotive, mechanics and thermal engineering, as well as for anyone interested in modern technologies in the field of motor transport. Theoretical studies of the gas engine fuel supply process are of great importance in the modern automotive industry. The efficiency of a gas engine depends directly on the correct selection of fuel supply parameters, which makes this topic relevant for research and development. The article analyzes in detail various aspects of the fuel supply process, such as fuel dosing, spraying, system pressure, as well as interaction with other engine systems So, the presented article is a valuable contribution to the field of gas engine fuel supply research and can be useful both for specialists involved in the development of gas engines and for a wide range of readers interested in modern technologies and innovations in the field of automotive technology. Keywords: GAS ENGINE, FUEL SUPPLY, FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM, AGROENGINEERING, INNOVATIONS IN THE FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM, AGROTECHNICS, FUEL SUPPLY PARAMETERS

Interconnected pyrolysis and activation with in-situ H3PO4 activation of biochar from pear wood chips in a pilot scale dual fluidized bed

Interconnected pyrolysis and activation is a novel technology for combustible gas and biochar production in dual fluidized bed (DFB). The study proposed one-step and two-step methods for pyrolysis and activation of biomass in a pilot scale DFB with capacity of 100 kg/h. Physical and chemical activation occurred simultaneously in DFB system by phosphoric acid (H3PO4) impregnation pretreatment of pear wood chips, and flowing hot flue gas and steam. Stable operating parameters were observed for both methods. The one-step method was superior to the two-step method in terms of the pyrolysis gas quality, biochar pore distribution, micro- and meso-pores structures of biochar, while one-step method reduced the biochar yields. As an activation agent, H3PO4 increased the yields of biochar and pyrolysis gas, promoted formation of micropores and enriched the surface functional groups of biochar with increasing ratio of H3PO4. H3PO4 to biomass ratio of 1:5 reached the maximum biochar yield of 42.3 wt% and highest iodine adsorption value of 648.5 mg/g, increasing by 70.6 % and 90.3 % compared to the biochar without H3PO4 pretreatment, respectively. This DFB system facilitated the diversified use of fluidized beds and the co-production of biochar and product gas with energy saving and CO2 emission reduction.

A Review of Research on Marine Main Propulsion Systems

Ship power, as an essential component of ship engineering, directly affects the navigation performance, economy, and environmental friendliness of ships. This article reviews the development history of ship power, introduces the main propulsion devices including internal combustion engines, steam engines, and electric motors, and discusses the structure and optimization design of ship power systems. Modern ship power technology includes traditional diesel and gasoline engines, as well as new power devices such as liquefied natural gas (LNG) engines, hybrid power systems, and fuel cells. Electric ships are gaining attention due to their efficiency and environmental benefits. In the future, ship power technology will develop towards green environmental protection, intelligence, integration, diversification, and digitization, providing more reliable and efficient power support for the shipping industry and the advancement of ship engineering.

Experimental Study on Oil-Gas Interaction Mechanism during Offshore Heavy Oil Gas Injection.

Offshore heavy oil injection gas extraction is a highly scrutinized area in today's petroleum industry. However, the interaction mechanisms between oil and gas are not clear. To elucidate these mechanisms, an indoor experimental setup was established for research purposes. The effects of different types of gases on heavy oil expansion, mass transfer mechanisms between gas and heavy oil, the influence of gas injection on heavy oil phase behavior, and the testing of minimum miscibility pressures are investigated in this study. The results indicate that CO2 yields the best reduction in the heavy oil viscosity. Both forward and backward multiple contact mass transfer processes demonstrate nonmiscible multiple contact dynamic displacement mechanisms involving CO2 dissolution and condensation, as well as C1 extraction and coextraction. Nonmiscible multiple contact dynamic displacement of natural gas primarily involves limited dissolution and condensation of light hydrocarbon components and intermediate hydrocarbon components, with an extremely weak extraction effect. The minimum miscibility pressures are in the order of CO2 < natural gas < N2. This research provides important experimental evidence and theoretical guidance for further improving offshore heavy oil injection gas technology and practice.

Towards optimized excess air ratio and substitution rate for a dual fuel HPDI engine

The diesel-piloted high-pressure direct-injection (HPDI) natural gas engine is a significant application of natural gas in heavy-duty engines. However, there is limited research focusing on quantitative optimization of the excess air coefficient and natural gas substitution rate of HPDI engines. In order to support the design and development of HPDI engines, this article investigates the effects of excess air coefficient and substitution rate on a dual fuel HPDI engine combustion performance and emission characteristics. Results show that increasing the excess air coefficient results in higher cylinder pressure, but it has minimal effect on the heat release rate. A higher excess air coefficient can also lead to higher nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions, lower soot emissions, methane (CH4) and total hydrocarbon (THC) emissions significantly decrease at 50% loads (Case2 and Case4), but these increase at 70% loads (Case1 and Case3). Furthermore, increasing the substitution rate markedly reduces greenhouse gas emissions, though it comes with the drawback of heightened combustion instability, and there is a trade-off between engine combustion cycle variations and greenhouse gas emissions as the substitution rate changes. The above research findings will provide optimization guidance for the engineering development of HPDI engines.

Evaluating potential of increasing flow intensity and reducing crevice volume to improve thermal efficiency and hydrocarbon emission in spark-ignition natural gas engines

Low thermal efficiency and high hydrocarbon emissions caused by slow combustion rates and high methane emissions hinder the development of natural gas (NG) engines. Engine structure modifications have always been an important means of improving the combustion effects of engines. This study investigates the effects of combustion chamber improvements on the thermal efficiency and hydrocarbon emissions of stoichiometric spark-ignition NG engines through numerical simulations. The improvements aimed to enhance squish flow, organize high tumble flow, and reduce crevice volume. The results indicate that strengthening the squish intensity by increasing the squish area of the piston can accelerate flame propagation and reduce exhaust loss. However, this improvement is hindered by a significant rise in heat transfer loss, which limits further gains in thermal efficiency. Compared to the traditional high swirl combustion chamber, a high tumble combustion chamber (dual straight intake port combined with a hemispherical piston) can promote flame propagation in the early stages of combustion and increase thermal efficiency by 1.43%. However, the accelerated flame propagation rate resulting from increased flow intensity has little potential to reduce hydrocarbon emissions due to the small contribution of flame quenching to unburned hydrocarbon production. The primary source of hydrocarbon emissions from NG engines is unburned methane in the piston crevice. Therefore, when addressing hydrocarbon emissions from NG engines, the first consideration should be to minimize the volume of the piston crevice, which will significantly reduce methane emissions and incomplete combustion loss.

Harnessing NOx emission management: A virtual sensor model for natural gas power generation engines with active pre-chamber

This paper presents a NOx Sensor machine learning model for a highly efficient 2MW power generation lean burn gas engine with an active pre-chamber. As gas power generation continues to evolve, engine efficiency and the accurate measurement of NOx emissions has taken on greater importance. However, the working life of existing NOx sensors pales in comparison to the lifecycle of an engine. This paper studies a series of machine learning NOx sensor models and carries out a comparative analysis. We introduce a predictive analytics model used for monitoring the emissions of active pre-chamber gas engines. This real deployment aims to detect the deviations in emissions across an entire fleet of gas engines, even when no physical sensors are installed in the engines. Finally, a model has been implemented that allows the prediction of NOx values, in engines that did not have them initially, with a 5–10 % precision. For example, with NOx at 120 ppm, the virtual sensor provides values close to +-10 ppm. It has been observed that such features as the setpoint value of the active pre-chamber gas pressure, in a lean burn gas engine with active pre-chamber, are among those parameters that have the greatest impact on the model estimation.

Thermodynamic Model for Hydrogen Production from Rice Straw Supercritical Water Gasification.

Supercritical water gasification (SCWG) technology is highly promising for its ability to cleanly and efficiently convert biomass to hydrogen. This paper developed a model for the gasification of rice straw in supercritical water (SCW) to predict the direction and limit of the reaction based on the Gibbs free energy minimization principle. The equilibrium distribution of rice straw gasification products was analyzed under a wide range of parameters including temperatures of 400-1200 °C, pressures of 20-50 MPa, and rice straw concentrations of 5-40 wt%. Coke may not be produced due to the excellent properties of supercritical water under thermodynamic constraints. Higher temperatures, lower pressures, and biomass concentrations facilitated the movement of the chemical equilibrium towards hydrogen production. The hydrogen yield was 47.17 mol/kg at a temperature of 650 °C, a pressure of 25 MPa, and a rice straw concentration of 5 wt%. Meanwhile, there is an absorptive process in the rice straw SCWG process for high-calorific value hydrogen production. Energy self-sufficiency of the SCWG process can be maintained by adding small amounts of oxygen (ER < 0.2). This work would be of great value in guiding rice straw SCWG experiments.

Thermodynamic modeling and performance analysis of chemical looping gasification combined with steam reforming for municipal solid waste: An Aspen Plus approach

Chemical looping gasification combined with steam reforming (CLG-SR) holds great promise for improving energy efficiency and streamlining the production of renewable H2 and synthetic fuels. In this investigation, the process underwent simulation and analysis using Aspen Plus, offering valuable insights into product outcomes, environmental impacts, and economic performance. The accuracy of the model was validated against experimental results from the literature, yielding a root mean square (RMS) of 4.17 %, thereby demonstrating its high feasibility. The findings demonstrate that within the temperature range of 700–800 °C, H2 achieves notable selectivity, reaching 60.68 % selectivity at 700 °C. When the steam-to-municipal solid waste (MSW) ratio surpasses 0.9, H2 demonstrates elevated selectivity. Notably, it is crucial to observe that the selectivity of CO2 also escalates concurrently with that of H2. Specifically, at steam-to-MSW ratio (SMR) of 0.9, the selectivity of H2 attains 60.72 %, whereas the selectivity of CO2 attains 27.69 %. Under these parameter conditions, H2, purified through pressure swing adsorption (PSA), constitutes 68.59 % of the total input H elements, leading to an impressive energy efficiency of 47.76 %. The economic analysis, based on the model, discloses a material consumption of 7.40 tons per ton of H2, resulting in a total production cost of 2487.20 USD per ton of H2. The study bears paramount strategic significance for advancing the in-depth research and development of chemical looping gasification technology.

Performance evaluation of red mud-based oxygen carriers in the chemical looping gasification of wet sludge rich in iron

A high-performance and low-cost oxygen carrier (OC) is the key for industrialization of chemical looping gasification (CLG) technology for sludge treatment. In this work, four OCs (RM_15 %CuO, RM_10 %CuO, RM, RM_POC) were prepared in an industrial-scale granulation equipment. The red mud was composited by mixing with different amounts of CuO and MnO2, then subjecting to different calcination temperatures. Firstly, the oxygen decoupling and oxygen carrying capacities of the OCs were compared using 5% H2 as the reducing agent. RM_15%CuO and RM_POC showed excellent oxygen release capabilities, with oxygen release loss of −1.99 % for RM_15%CuO. The catalytic gasification performances of RM_15%CuO and RM_POC were evaluated in a lab-scale fluidized bed reactor with wet sludge as the feedstock. Both OCs were able to maintain the H2 concentration of over 44.6% and no less than 79.2% sludge gasification efficiency after 30 cycles. However, the H2 content was clearly higher in case of RM_POC. SEM-EDS was used to analyze the influence of sludge ash, rich in Fe, on the performance of two OCs after the fluidized bed operation. The results showed that the sludge ash sample with more than 20% Fe2O3 could transfer its lattice oxygen to assist OC and prevent the in-situ segregation of Fe phase in the POC surface. However, the inhibitory effect of RM_15%CuO was much lower. The degradation performance of RM_POC carrier was slower and thus the H2 content was higher. This performance evaluation provides a theoretical guide for chemical looping gasification of sludge in future with an idea of mixed ratio of recycling sludge ash to the RM_POC.

Numerical simulation of ash deposition behavior in radiant syngas cooler coupled with impact surface temperature

Radiant syngas cooler (RSC) is a crucial heat recovery device for entrained-flow coal gasification technology. However, ash deposition in an RSC can severely affect operating efficiency and safety. An ash deposition model coupled with the impact surface temperature was established based on the ash particle deposition morphology. The effects of different operating conditions on ash deposition characteristics are discussed. The simulated data agreed well with the industrial data. The results indicate that ash particles were primarily deposited in the collision deposition zone. The maximum deposition thickness of radiation screen and cylinder membrane wall is 9.82 mm and 1.88 mm, respectively. The ash deposition hindered heat transfer process and the highest heat flux was observed in the middle part of the RSC. Ash deposition around 5.3 m increases significantly with an increase in the inlet syngas temperature. Increasing the load increased probability of ash particle collision and the area of influence.

ANALYSIS OF ACCIDENTS DURING DRILLING WITH FLOATING DEVICES IN THE CASPIAN SEA

At drilling of chinks on areas Gunashli, May 28, Bahar, Neft Dashları, Bulla with density of a chisel solution above (1.9-2,0)·104 N/m3 on depth 2000÷4500 m with balance in system the chink-layer is observed decrease in density of a chisel solution to 1,25÷1,30 g/sm3 with the subsequent open gas fountains. The gas getting in chink by diffusion basically comes to light at washing after lifting and descent of the boring tool. In trenches there are elements of the aerated solution, which density a little above before the circulating. Diffusion is the phenomenon caused by movement of molecules. A principal cause of diffusion of gas is presence of a gradient of concentration. Receipt of gas with diffusion from a layer in a chink will take place until gas molecules goes from a zone with high concentration in zones with low concentration, i.e. in chink. Getting to a chisel solution, diffusion gas, go up together with solutions and passing from zones of high pressures in zones low, extends, therefore its density decreases, that, in turn, conducts to decrease in hydrostatic pressure in a face of a chink and to serious complications. The article examines and analyzes the main causes of complications and accidents that arise during the construction, operation and repair of oil and gas wells, and leading to gas and oil shows, open fountains and fires in the fields of Azerbaijan. The ways in which complications arise during the extraction of hydrocarbons are briefly discussed. The conditions and nature of the occurrence of complications leading to accidents, gas manifestations, open fountains and fires are analyzed. Based on an analysis of the complications that arise during the construction, operation and repair of oil and gas wells, technologies and technical means are presented that make it possible to improve the quality of repair work carried out on oil and gas wells during their construction and operation. Equipment and tools for emergency response are considered. Technologies are proposed for eliminating accidents associated with the breakage and fall of downhole tool equipment onto the bottom, with cleaning the bottom of foreign objects, and with the elimination of stuck pipes. Modern technologies for eliminating gas shows and open fountains complicated by a fire at the mouth of a gushing well are proposed. In a chink it is required to make washing of a chisel solution for prevention of complications with closed preventer with dispersing of a boring column. Keywords: well, manifestation, gas, diffusion, pressure, washing solution.

Deflagration Dynamics of Methane–Air Mixtures in Closed Vessels at Elevated Temperatures

In this paper, we explore the deflagration combustion of methane–air mixtures through both experimental and numerical analyses. The key parameters defining deflagration combustion dynamics include maximum explosion pressure (Pmax), maximum rate of explosion pressure rise (dP/dt)max, deflagration index (KG), and laminar burning velocity (SU). Understanding these parameters enhances the process of safety design across the energy sector, where light-emissive fuels play a crucial role in energy transformation. However, most knowledge on these parameters comes from experiments under standard conditions (P = 1 bar, T = 293.15 K), with limited data on light hydrocarbon fuels at elevated temperatures. Our study provides new insights into methane–air mixture deflagration dynamics at temperatures ranging from 293 to 348 K, addressing a gap in the current process industry knowledge, especially in gas and chemical engineering. We also conduct a comparative analysis of predictive models for the laminar burning velocity of methane mixtures in air, including the Manton, Lewis, and von Elbe, Bradley and Mitcheson, and Dahoe models, alongside various chemical kinetic mechanisms based on experimental findings. Notably, despite their simplicity, the Bradley and Dahoe models exhibit a satisfactory predictive accuracy when compared with numerical simulations from three chemical kinetic models using Cantera v. 3.0.0 code. The findings of this study enrich the fundamental combustion data for methane mixtures at elevated temperatures, vital for advancing research on natural gas as an efficient “bridge fuel” in energy transition.

Research on the ignition mechanism and structural optimization of turbulent jet pre-chamber in GDI engines

Turbulent jet ignition has been widely studied, but it is mainly focused on gas engines, the igniting mechanisms of pre-chamber (PC) on GDI engines and the contributions of heat and radicals of the jet in inhomogeneous charge still remain to be clarified. Thus, 3-D simulations with comprehensive spray mixing process were performed under variable structural parameters. The decoupling results of thermal and chemical effects show that the influence of jet temperature on the heat release rate (HRR) inside main chamber (MC) is greater than that of free radicals. The mechanism of hot jet ignition containing free radicals in MC is flame propagation without ignition delay. However, compared to jet temperature, the free radicals in the jet have less effects on HRR in MC after the ignition. The nozzle diameter significantly affects fuel entry into the PC, influencing the pressure difference between PC and MC, and thus the jet velocity and duration. The optimal diameter in this study is 1.0 mm, and the jet duration is prolonged for too small or too large diameters. The nozzle angle is constrained by combustion chamber geometry, with the optimal angle being 140° to avoid jet impingement on cylinder head or piston.

Separation behavior of metal and oxide: Vacuum gasification for metal recovery advanced from lead anode slime

Lead anode slime (LAS), a significant secondary resource, was utilized to separate andrecycle of rare and precious metals such as Te, Au, and Ag, along with essential metals Cu, Pb, and Bi. The conventional pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes generated hazardous waste, including high levels of As, Sb, smoke, heavy metal waste. Extraction of these key metals is both laborious and ineffective. A novel vacuum gasification technology was employed to explore the separation patterns and migration distribution principles of metal and oxide (MO) in LAS. The theoretical results of phase transition enthalpy change (ΔH), saturated vapor pressure, and molecular average free path investigated the gasification and volatilization potential of MO in LAS. Furthermore, the experimental results revealed separation behavior of MO. As and Sb were evaporated into the gaseous phase to facilitate their separation from other substances at 773 K. Pb and Bi behavior were similar to them at 823 K, As, Sb, Pb and Bi to enter the gaseous phase for the purpose of separation with Ag, Au, and Cu. By exploiting the differences of gasification specificity, it is possible to separate Ag, Au, Cu, and other elements at 1173 K, finally leading to the formation of Ag–Au–Cu alloys.

Techno-Economic Potential of a Polygeneration System Integrated with Conventional or Hybrid Solar Dual Fluidized Bed Gasification Technology in an Australian Sugar Mill

Techno-Economic Potential of a Polygeneration System Integrated with Conventional or Hybrid Solar Dual Fluidized Bed Gasification Technology in an Australian Sugar Mill

Effects of critical structure parameters on conversion performance enhancement of a Pd–Rh dual-carrier catalytic converter for heavy-duty natural gas engines

In this work, the effects of structure parameters on the conversion performance of the dual-carrier catalytic converter for heavy-duty natural gas engines are investigated. A three-dimensional numerical model adopting an empirical global reaction mechanism for the Pd–Rh dual-carrier catalytic converter is established. The results show that the conversion efficiency slightly increase with the increase of the carrier cell density ratio, the maximum conversion efficiency differences of CH4, CO and NO are 5.7 %, 8.3 % and 7.9 %, respectively. When the carrier wall thickness decreases from 0.24 mm to 0.10 mm, the conversion efficiencies of CH4, CO and NO slightly increase, and the maximum differences are 5.5 %, 8.0 % and 8.0 %, respectively. Additionally, the fuzzy grey relational analysis (FGRA) is employed to make a comprehensive evaluation. For the conversion efficiencies of CH4 and NO, the primary and secondary relationships of the influence factors are carrier diameter > carrier length > carrier cell density ratio > carrier wall thickness. The orthogonal experiment analysis indicates that case 7 shows the best total conversion performance (CH4: 91.9 %; CO: 99.7 %; NO: 83.9 %) at 673K. Compared with the baseline case 2, the conversion efficiencies of CH4 and NO are increased by 14 % and 19.9 %, while the volume increased by 36.1 %.