Garden System Research Articles

Exploring the Function of Home Gardens in Strengthening the Resilience of Social-Ecological Landscapes through Cross-Scale Interactions: A case Study from Lefke City of the Northern Cyprus

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the function of home gardens in strengthening the resilience of the social-ecological landscape system in Lefke City of the Northern Cyprus through a set of cross-scale interactions. In doing so, the objectives of the study were (i) to design a conceptual framework that links the resilience of the home garden and landscape systems through a range of cross-scale interactions, (ii) to identify the major cross-scale resilience assessment indicators at the home garden (site) scale, and (iii) to quantify the resilience of the home garden system and to evaluate its inter-linkages with the resilience of the landscape system. The method of the study consisted of three parts. Firstly, a conceptual framework, which depicts the relationship between the resilience of the home garden and landscape systems through a set of cross-scale interactions, was designed by reviewing the relevant literatures. Secondly, appropriated cross-scale resilience assessment indicators at the home garden scale were identified through an in-depth literature review. Thirdly, the relevant data on the indentified indicators were collected by employing a social preference approach and then evaluated by performing the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). A social preference approach was adopted to collect the relevant data. Within this context, a questionnaire form was designed to explore stakeholders’ perceptions regarding the objectives of the study. The interviewers expressed their perceptions on a 0-5 Likert Scale. Assessment of the results revealed that plant diversity and spatial connectivity are the key cross-scale principles to link the ecological resilience of the home garden with landscape systems. The social resilience of the both systems is interlinked with five principles (maintenance of food production, income diversification, demographics, cultural heritage, and traditional knowledge). The average relative value of the ecological and social resilience of the home garden system was estimated to be medium with a 3,15 points and low with a 2,16 points respectively. The total average relative value of the resilience of the home garden system was estimated to be low with a 2,41 points. Several drivers (e.g. intensive urbanization and landscape fragmentation) have been identified as the driving forces behind the decline of the resilience of the both systems. Understanding the interconnectedness between the resilience of different spatial units and scales may help policy-makers, planners, and land managers to design a mechanism that integrates the cross-scale interactions into planning and relevant strategies.

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SMART VERTICAL GARDEN SYSTEM FOR URBAN AGRICULTURE INITIATIVE IN MALAYSIA

Vertical garden system has the potential to increase vegetable production in the urban areas in Malaysia. This research designed and developed a compact and smart vertical garden system for the urban agriculture. It also analysed the growth performances of lettuce in the smart vertical garden system which involved two phases; the development of vertical garden system and the monitoring system for nutrient solution. The growth performances of different stacks of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) in the vertical garden system were observed and compared against the commercialised conventional hydroponic system. The growth performances of lettuce in the vertical garden system showed that the most bottom stack (stack 5) of lettuce achieved the maximum level of lettuce height, and had the highest number of leaves and leaves width. Nevertheless, from the overall ANOVA results, at different levels of the stacks of lettuce, only lettuce height was observed as having a significant difference (P < 0.0001) while no significant difference was found in the number of leaves (P = 0.0002) and leaves width (P = 0.0046). The growth development varied due to different amounts of water and light exposure. On the other hand, no significant difference was found when comparing between the vertical garden system and the commercialised conventional hydroponic system (lettuce height, P = 0.4997; number of leaves, P = 0.5325; and leaves width, P = 0.5231). In short, the smart vertical garden system can give the same performance as the commercial conventional hydroponic system.

Measuring the potential of biomass, carbon storage, and carbon sink of forest cloves

Forest clove (Syzygiumaromaticum (L.) Merr& Perry) is a tree-shaped species that has been widely cultivated by farmers in its distribution area in Maluku. It grows relatively fast with large morphological sizes, giving it the potential of being a carbon sink plant. So far, information on the potential of biomass, carbon deposits, and carbon uptake of forest cloves is still limited. This study was aimed to determine the biomass potential, carbon deposits, and carbon uptake of forest cloves. It was carried out in the distribution area of Leihitu Subdistrict, Central Maluku Regency, from January to February 2019. The method used was a non- destructive one with a plot size of 20 x 20 m, chosen through purposive sampling and referring to carbon measurement standards, namely SNI: 7724 - 2011. Measurements were made on individual forest cloves and clove cropping systems. As a comparison, other land-use systems were used in the form of nutmeg gardens and mixed gardens. The study revealed a relationship pattern between the age of individual forest clove with biomass, carbon storage, and carbon uptake which were mathematically described as follows:y(biomass) = 0.7707(age)2 - 2.3947(age); y (carbon storage)= 0.3622(age)2 - 1.1255(age); y(carbon uptake) = 1.3294(age)2 - 4.1306(age). The results showed that biomass in the 15-year-old forest clove cropping system averaged 73.67 tons ha−1 with carbon deposits of 34.63 tons ha−1, and carbon absorption of 127.08 tons ha−1. Those results were slightly higher than those in the nutmeg cropping system, but lower compared to those of the mixed garden systems. The 15-year-old nutmeg cropping system had an average biomass of 44.30 tons ha−1 with carbon deposits of 20.82 tons ha−1, and carbon absorption of 76.41 tons ha−1. Meanwhile, the 15-year-old mixed garden system had a biomass of 259.59 tons ha−1, with carbon deposits of 122.01 tons ha−1, and carbon absorption of 447.77 tons ha−1.

Gypsum Amendment to Soil and Plants Affected by Sodic Alkaline Industrial Wastewater Irrigation in Urban Agriculture of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

Low-quality water such as sodic alkaline industrial wastewater is often used to irrigate crops of intensively managed urban gardening systems in the semi-arid tropics to help meet the fresh food demands of a rapidly increasing city population. An on-farm experiment was established to examine the effects of sodium (Na) and bicarbonate (HCO3−)-loaded industrial wastewater on soil and crops on the one hand, and to determine melioration effects on soil condition and plant development on the other hand. To ameliorate the sodified soil, fine-powdered gypsum (CaSO4) was applied as soil amendment onto the upper soil (0–20 cm) before sowing of crops. Depending on soil pH and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), which reflected the level of soil degradation (SDL), two different amounts of gypsum were applied: 6.8 t ha−1 in moderate and 10 t ha−1 in high SDL plots. Subsequently rainfed maize (Zea mays L.) and irrigated spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) under two irrigation water qualities (clean and wastewater) were cultivated. Chemical and physical soil parameters, as well as plant root density (RLD), crop yield and concentrations of major plant nutrients and Na were determined. The results showed that gypsum application reduced soil pH on average below 8 and reduced ESP below 18%. Furthermore, gypsum-treated soils showed a significant reduction of sodium absorption rate (SAR) from 14.0 to 7.9 and aggregate stability was increased from 44.2 to 51.2%. This in return diminished Na concentration in plant tissues up to 80% and significantly increased RLD of maize. Overall, calcium (Ca) addition through the gypsum amendment changed the soil cation balance by increasing the Ca:Mg ratio from 3.5 to 7.8, which likely influenced the complex interactions between competing cations at the exchange surfaces of the soil and cation uptake by plant roots.

Design of a Inhouse Garden System

Design of a Inhouse Garden System

Application of low impact development concept in the construction of Shouxian County

Low Impact Development (LID), also known as low impact design or low impact urban design and development, is a rainwater management method based on the principle of simulating natural hydrological conditions, using source control concepts to achieve stormwater control and utilization. Through the analysis of the current topography, meteorology, rainfall, and urban underlying surface of Shouxian County, the author finds out the cause of the county, and proposes to appropriately improve the design standards in the construction of municipal drainage facilities, and learn from the successful experience of sponge city construction in developed countries. The six-character policy of seepage, stagnation, storage, net, use and platoon is implemented in the engineering practice of the county-level recessed green space, rain garden, grass-growing ditch, infiltration pavement and water system remediation. Through several years of implementation, the phenomenon of sea watching in the county has disappeared, the water saving effect is obvious, the greening of the urban landscape has been greatly improved, and the social, economic and environmental benefits have been significantly improved

Chemical contents of hydroponic plants

The world is increasingly sophisticated with technologies that help humans in the move, even in terms of compliance with food, but it is still in line with the development of technology that is the growing amount of human birth, so the lack of area for fulfillment in terms of planting of food crops, but the land is mostly reserved residential land, and even more we see this village, which is clearing land to grow crops other than basic foodstuffs, but only to enrich themselves. How do we as human beings who still want to meet the food needs facing arable land diminishing modern era is farming no longer have to use the soil of various methods of planting can be used for those who want to pursue her, one of which is farming hydroponic, hydroponics itself is a means farming without soil media when faced with the problems faced in the world in terms of food production, hydroponic gardening system offers a promising solution. In poor countries where soil or climate inhospitable to agriculture, hydroponics offers a means to grow crops with ease. also in areas where the soil has lost its nutrients or fertile land is hard to come by, hydroponics can be an ideal alternative to farming.

Minimum Light Requirements for Indoor Gardening of Lettuce

Indoor food‐gardening is an important trend in horticulture. However, most research‐based light recommendations are oriented towards commercial production, with recommended daily light integrals (DLI) significantly higher than those found inside a home environment. The objective was to evaluate growth (fresh and dry mass), accumulation of key phytochemical constituents (leaf photosynthetic pigment and nitrate content), and aesthetic quality (elongation and pigmentation) of red‐leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa) grown from transplant to a harvest stage in an indoor environment using different (i) light sources (light‐emitting diode [LED] vs. fluorescent lamps), and (ii) light quantities (from 1.6 to 9.7 mol m−2 d−1). In the first experiment, four broadband white light sources were compared in a growth chamber using 5.2 mol∙m−2∙d−1: (i) ‘neutral‐white’ 4000‐K LED lamps, (ii) ‘day‐white’ 5000‐K LED lamps, (iii) ‘neutral‐white’ 4100‐K fluorescent lamps, or (iv) ‘daylight’ 6500‐K fluorescent lamps. Lettuce grown under LED lamps produced more shoot fresh and dry mass than those grown under fluorescent lamps. However, all light sources resulted in comparable growth and quality attributes. In two separate experiments, plants were grown under one of four DLI. As DLI increased, plants had more growth, higher aesthetic quality (more compact leaves and higher pigment content), and superior nutritional quality (increased leaf concentrations of anthocyanin and carotenoid, and reduced nitrate). Based on these results, a minimum DLI of 6.5 to 9.7 mol m−2 d−1 is recommended when designing indoor gardening systems for red‐leaf lettuce plants.

Growing Gardens Sustainability: Challenges and Opportunities Facing the Strategic Expansion of Anchorage, Alaska’s Community Garden System

Anchorage’s community gardening program is administered by the Municipality of Anchorage Parks and Recreation program and part of their mission is to provide “a food system where locally produced, affordable, and nutritious food is available to all”. The demand for access to community gardens far outweighs the supply raising the question, how can the city of Anchorage strategically and sustainably expand their community garden system? To explore this question, the Municipality of Anchorage partnered with the University of Alaska Anchorage to better understand how expanding community gardens can bridge a gap in the local food system and increase access to fresh foods by the city’s most vulnerable and diverse individuals. To do this, we developed a multi-faceted needs assessment that included a community survey, stakeholder workshop, and key informant interviews. This paper explores the opportunities and challenges of expanding Anchorage’s community gardens and offers expansion strategies that balance the needs of the community’s diverse populations with the city’s community gardening mission. The findings of this study show that to sustainably meet the needs of diverse audiences, community garden expansion efforts should focus on 1) making new gardens accessible by identifying safe, convenient, and functional locations; 2) building gardener capacity through education and outreach programs; and 3) strengthening partnerships with other community organizations to share resources and capabilities. The methods used and the associated findings revealed through this study can be adapted and applied in other cities looking to develop a sustainable and strategic model for community gardening.

Water Use Behavior, Learning, and Adaptation to Future Change in Urban Gardens

Urban agriculture is undergoing a contemporary global renaissance, providing fresh food for growing urban populations and vital environmental benefits for cities. Despite urban agriculture’s social-environmental importance, a rural bias in agricultural research has left critical gaps in our understanding of how urban agroecosystem management can sustainably produce food in the future. Specifically, there is a need to study urban agriculture water management due to recent drought events, likely increases in urban water scarcity, and higher temperatures. Gardeners can play a decisive role in increasing urban agriculture’s sustainability through their water, soil and vegetation management. Here, we examined water use, vegetation, and soil management in the California Central Coast - a region facing drought - to better understand how urban agriculture management affects water use sustainability. We worked with gardeners to study their water management decisions using citizen science, where volunteer gardeners collected their own water use behavior data and participated in a survey to describe their behaviors around water use, water conservation, and plot level management. We found that water use varies by gardener, and water use is positively related to mulching and crop cover in plots. Contrary to expectations, gardeners that reported high levels of concern over current environmental conditions (drought) and water conservation in the survey tended to use high amounts of water, suggesting that environmental worldviews do not necessarily translate into everyday practices. On the other hand, gardeners in gardens with more rules and regulations around water use tended to use less water, highlighting the practicality of enforcing rules and regulations during drought periods. Gardeners reported interest in adapting gardening practices to more sustainably use water regardless of their current practices. The combination of education and rules and regulations will help improve the sustainability of garden systems in times of environmental change.

Exploring the linkages between the building, home garden and human system resilience in Lefke Region of North Cyprus

ABSTRACTResilience has been a challenging approach to analyse the built environment–society linkages and to design more sustainable built environments for enhancing society’s quality of life. This paper explores the linkages between the building, home garden and human system resilience in the Lefke region of North Cyprus. To this end, 50 buildings with a vernacular value, their home gardens and householders were evaluated. The method consisted of developing a conceptual framework for better understanding the linkages among the three systems, exploring the appropriate resilience assessment indicators for the systems, data collection with a questionnaire and data evaluation (based on a 1–5 Likert scale). The results revealed that the average relative values of the building, home garden and human system resilience are, respectively, 2.22 (low), 2.49 (low), and 3.63 (medium). Diversity, traditional knowledge and connectivity were found to be the key indicators for evaluating the linkages amongst the systems.

Socio-economic Analysis Based on Energy Input and Output of Mixed Cropping Systems of Bhabhar Region (Shiwalik Range of Kumaun Himalaya, India)

In the present study, the status of energy efficiency and economy of existing agroecosystems in the Shiwalik range of Kumaun Himalaya were assessed. A large number of plant species were cultivated/maintained by the local inhabitants to conserve the diversity in agroecosystems. Agriculture was the main source of economy of the villagers. The agroforestry system provides many ecological services to enhance the socio-economic condition of the farmers. In addition, home garden is another land use system, which is very common in the area. All collected data from agricultural (inputs and outputs) were calculated and converted to energy values by using constants. In the present study, average consumption of annual energy inputs in agroforestry system (103646 MJ/ha) was approximately three times more as compared to home gardens (43056 MJ/ha). Uses of chemical fertilizers and pesticides increased the inputs manifolds. Average annual energy outputs obtained from agroforestry system (434116 MJ/ha) which was seven times more to the home gardens (57008 MJ/ha). Energy output/input ratio in agroforestry varied from 2.26 to 9.06 while in home gardens range speckled between 1.20 and 1.47. In terms of monetary budget, annual return from agroforestry and home garden systems were ₹ 95077/ha and 4201/ha, respectively. From the present study, it can be concluded that agroecosystems provides the good monetary benefits and source of employment to the villagers. The possible benefits of agriculture are raising income and thus improving status of livelihoods in Bhabhar region of Kumaun Himalaya.

Standardization of plant species and growing medium for vertical garden system: A new urban horticulture concept

Vertical gardens are becoming a common component in contemporary garden designs at urban living space because of shrinking land spaces. Successful growing of plants in vertical garden systems depends up on growing container, plants chosen, growing media, etc. Hence a study was carried out in the Department of Horticulture, Annamalai University, during the year 2013, with the objectives to study the influence of Coir pith, Stockosorb and Geohumus as components of growing media along with FYM, Vermicompost and Leaf mould compost on growth and performance of ornamental plants for establishment of vertical garden and to study the performance of ornamental plants Viz., Philodendron erubescens Cv. ‘Gold’, Chlorophytum comosum Cv. ‘Variegatum’ and Polyscias fruticosa plants in wooden containers for establishment of vertical garden. The experiment was laid out in Completely Randomized Design in wooden containers, with ten treatment combinations of various growing media mixtures comprising red soil, river sand as basic components in combination with organic manures (FYM, vermicompost, leaf mould compost, coir pith) and hydrogels (Stocksorb and Geohumus). The plant growth characters and ornamental value index were observed. Among the three ornamental plants used, Polyscias fruticosa and Philodendron erubescens are performed better as ornamental plants in vertical garden system with the growing media of Red soil : River sand : Vermicompost @ 1:1:1/2 + Stockosorb(25g).

Standardization of plant species and growing medium for vertical garden system: A new urban horticulture concept

Vertical gardens are becoming a common component in contemporary garden designs at urban living space because of shrinking land spaces. Successful growing of plants in vertical garden systems depends up on growing container, plants chosen, growing media, etc. Hence a study was carried out in the Department of Horticulture, Annamalai University, during the year 2013, with the objectives to study the influence of Coir pith, Stockosorb and Geohumus as components of growing media along with FYM, Vermicompost and Leaf mould compost on growth and performance of ornamental plants for establishment of vertical garden and to study the performance of ornamental plants Viz., Philodendron erubescens Cv. ‘Gold’, Chlorophytum comosum Cv. ‘Variegatum’ and Polyscias fruticosa plants in wooden containers for establishment of vertical garden. The experiment was laid out in Completely Randomized Design in wooden containers, with ten treatment combinations of various growing media mixtures comprising red soil, river sand as basic components in combination with organic manures (FYM, vermicompost, leaf mould compost, coir pith) and hydrogels (Stocksorb and Geohumus). The plant growth characters and ornamental value index were observed. Among the three ornamental plants used, Polyscias fruticosa and Philodendron erubescens are performed better as ornamental plants in vertical garden system with the growing media of Red soil : River sand : Vermicompost @ 1:1:1/2 + Stockosorb(25g).

Temperate Agroforestry: How Forest Garden Systems Combined with People-Based Ethics Can Transform Culture

How can transforming monocultures to diverse polycultures address and solve the intersecting issues of our food system? This literature review offers community resources, practical examples, and academic research to support the shift away from monocultures, and the broader social contexts that encourage them, and towards food systems as part of cultures that prioritize people, water, and the land. Forest garden systems are presented as a temperate agroforestry-based food system design which make use of multiple perennial plants to meet human needs for food, medicine, fuel, and more while regenerating the environment in which they grow. There is a lack of peer-reviewed research in temperate forest garden systems, but it is gaining momentum alongside an increasing application in non-academic contexts. Combined with cultural principles that prioritize people, the land, and water over profits, forest garden systems are proposed as a pathway for meeting local community’s needs and environmental regeneration.

Traditional Knowledge: Watering and Irrigation Practices of Khasi TreeCrop Gardening System in the Northeast Bangladesh

Indigenous Knowledge base tree crop farming system is prevalent from time immemorial to Khasi community in Bangladesh. This is their main subsistence and earning economy. However, environmental degradation with global warming and the shortage of natural resources has threatened the overall cultivation system. The topsoil of landscape with water bodies and ground water are not adequate for watering in the field. Therefore, it is burning question how Khasi mange and organize tree-crop farming in the field and what types of initiates are taken by them to grow tree crops. To explore these issues a qualitative approach and participant observation method with in-depth interviewing techniques, group discussion and key informant methods were employed to elicit data from the field. The collected data have been analyzed in inductive approach and categorized it from various chunks of information as objectives. The findings showed that traditional knowledge as local knowledge of the Khasi has been modified to the context different topographical structure and texture of soil with hill surrounding natural setting considering the local ecology, environment and biodiversities. The obtained findings uphold some empirical issues of indigenous practices with scientific practice of tree crop cultivation for getting soil moisture, fluid and water, which derives from rotted tree-twigs. While organic wastes and the foliage are not adequate, they use harvested rainwater, shallow-well water and ground water by using diverse ways and techniques. The watering and irrigation practice in the tree-fields are administered by the influence of modern irrigation inputs, including traditional Knowledge.

The impact of macropores on heavy metal retention in sustainable drainage systems

Abstract Numerous laboratory and field experiments have found that rain gardens exhibit excellent heavy metal retention (>88%). However, none examined the impact of macropore flow on this retention; this was established to be a key factor in heavy metal capture by previous landfill leachate experiments. Therefore, the aim of the experiments detailed in this paper was to investigate the effect of a single artificial macropore on heavy metal retention in a layered soil column (with a similar configuration to a rain garden). The findings of these experiments suggest that macropore flow does not impact the hydraulic performance or heavy metal retention of the columns with 99% of copper, lead and zinc captured. This indicates that macropores are not detrimental to heavy metal retention in rain garden systems with highly conductive soils; this was attributed to the high hydraulic conductivity of the media used and the depth of the system. However, in shallower systems, such as green roofs, the retention of heavy metals and other pollutants may be impacted by the existence of preferential flow, and more research into this area is needed.

Classifications in Brief: Garden Classification of Femoral Neck Fractures.

Classifications in Brief: Garden Classification of Femoral Neck Fractures.

Field Performance of Bioretention Systems for Runoff Quantity Regulation and Pollutant Removal

Bioretention systems are of immense importance as they serve as small “sponges” for cities, cutting stormwater runoff, removing pollution, and using precipitation resources. However, performance data for these facilities are generally lacking, particularly at the field scale. This study investigated the runoff quantity regulation and pollutant removal performance of bioswale and rain garden systems from 2014 to 2017. A performance assessment of these facilities demonstrated that anti-seepage rain garden, bioswale-A, and bioswale-B effectively retained inflow volumes by the filter media, reducing runoff volumes by 54.08, 98.25, and 77.65%, respectively, on average, with only two events of overflowing. According to the water quality data in 24 rainfall events, the main pollutant indexes for the new city include total nitrogen and chemical oxygen demand, and the median values for their respective effluent event median concentrations were 1.29 and 40.13 mg/L for anti-seepage rain garden and 1.68 and 74.00 mg/L for bioswale-B systems. The mean values of pollutant removal of the three bioretention systems, except for infiltration rain garden, were 39.8–59.73% (median = 54.32%), 61.06–72.66% (median = 73.47%), and 76.67%–88.16% (median = 80.64%). Meanwhile, outflow volume of water was found to be most influenced by inflow volumes for the bioswales and anti-seepage rain garden. Mass removals were higher than concentrations owing to water volume attenuation. Based on the data of monitored pollution loads, this study estimated the annual pollutant load removal as 75.45 and 90.7% for anti-seepage rain garden and bioswale-B according to the percent of monitoring rainfall depth in total annual precipitation. This study also established the target pollutant service life model on the basis of accumulated annual load and media adsorption capacity. The results of this study will contribute to a greater understanding of the treatment performance of bioretention systems, assisting in the design, operation, and maintenance of them.

Are traditional home gardens in southern Ethiopia heading for extinction? Implications for productivity, plant species richness and food security

While home garden systems are acknowledged for their capacity of supporting a very dense population, the productivity of these systems and their contribution to food security and dietary diversity are poorly quantified. Although several articles document the decrease in species richness in home gardens due to processes of modernization, relatively little attention has been given to how the change in diversity impacted productivity. Five predominant home garden systems identified in a previous study were intensively monitored during 12 months within four districts of Sidama and Gedeo zones of southern Ethiopia. Data from 24 farms were collected on plant species, soil characteristics, crop inputs, field sizes and crop yields and livestock production. The productivity of enset for both food and feed was lowest in Enset-coffee home gardens. Barley and khat yielded significantly more per ha in Khat-based systems than in other ones. Maize and coffee productivity did not differ significantly between home garden types. Overall crop productivity was lowest in the traditional Enset-coffee systems (1820kgDMha−1) and highest in the newly evolved Enset-cereal-vegetable systems (3020DMkgha−1). Energy productivity from food crops was higher in Enset-based systems (43GJha−1) than in other systems whereas revenue was lowest in Enset-based systems (719US$ha−1) and highest in newly evolved Khat-based systems (6817US$ha−1). The rate of N application through compost explained 30% of the variability in kocho standing biomass. The rate of N application in inorganic fertilizer explained 43% and 25% of the variability in khat and barley yield respectively. There was no positive effect of plant species richness on total crop and energy productivity except for the revenue in enset-oriented systems. Khat-based and Enset-cereal-vegetable systems were more food secure than the traditional home gardens, and these newly evolved systems also did not lead to a loss in plant species richness. The modification of traditional home garden systems by introducing the high value cash crop khat and annual cereals in response to farmland constraints and market opportunities enabled smallholders to maintain food security and dietary diversity without jeopardizing plant species richness. With population density expected to continually increase in the region, improvement options tailored to the specific systems are required for sustainable development.