Future Selves Research Articles

Halaqas, relational subjects, and revolutionary committees in Syria

Abstract Through an ethnographic account of Syrian halaqas (Sunni religious circles) from the 1980s until the 2011 Syrian revolution, this article argues that halaqas have a revolutionary potential. The analysis demonstrates that Syrian religious circles are spaces of self-transformation that have heterotopic qualities. The Darayya halaqa studied here is a space where present and future are collapsed: a space in which future revolutionary selves and societies are already enacted. This temporal collapse is thus simultaneously a scalar one, for through the emergence of a relational or unbounded subject, a revolutionary project is being performed. This project is, moreover, without a preexisting program that its members seek to implement in a distant future; it is rather a revolutionary project that is perpetually in the making through discussions and actions happening within it.

Temporal self-compression: Behavioral and neural evidence that past and future selves are compressed as they move away from the present

A basic principle of perception is that as objects increase in distance from an observer, they also become logarithmically compressed in perception (i.e., not differentiated from one another), making them hard to distinguish. Could this basic principle apply to perhaps our most meaningful mental representation: our own sense of self? Here, we report four studies that suggest selves are increasingly non-discriminable with temporal distance from the present as well. In Studies 1 through 3, participants made trait ratings across various time points in the past and future. We found that participants compressed their past and future selves, relative to their present self. This effect was preferential to the self and could not be explained by the alternative possibility that individuals simply perceive arbitrary self-change with time irrespective of temporal distance. In Study 4, we tested for neural evidence of temporal self-compression by having participants complete trait ratings across time points while undergoing functional MRI. Representational similarity analysis was used to determine whether neural self-representations are compressed with temporal distance as well. We found evidence of temporal self-compression in areas of the default network, including medial prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate cortex. Specifically, neural pattern similarity between self-representations was logarithmically compressed with temporal distance. Taken together, these findings reveal a "temporal self-compression" effect, with temporal selves becoming increasingly non-discriminable with distance from the present.

Envisioning positive future selves: Perceptions of the future self and psychological adaptation in recent migrants

ABSTRACT This study investigated how migration interrupts self-identity processes and the role of future self-perceptions in psychological adaptation. A longitudinal model was tested, in which self-concept clarity mediated the relationship of future self-continuity and positivity with life satisfaction over time. Data were collected three times over a year from 101 adult recent migrants (51.5% female, M age = 28.5, SD age = 8). The model partially supported the mediational hypothesis. Having a more positive attitude toward one’s future self in the host society was associated with increased self-concept clarity six months later, which in turn led to greater life satisfaction another six months later. Findings suggest that migrants who envision a desirable future self in their host environment experience better adaptation outcomes over time.

Valence of Temporal Self-Appraisals: A Comparison Between First-Person Perspective and Third-Person Perspective.

Mental time travel is one of the most remarkable achievements of mankind. On the one hand, people perceive past self, present self, and future self as a continuous unity; on the other hand, people have the ability to distinguish among the three types of temporal selves because there are different representations of them. In this study, we used an adapted temporal self-reference paradigm to explore the processing mechanism of different temporal selves. Temporal self-reference was performed from the first-person perspective in Experiment 1 and from the third-person perspective in Experiment 2. The results indicated that people showed a more positive bias toward future self compared with past self and present self no matter in the first-person perspective or third-person perspective. There was no difference in recognition rate among past self, present self, and future self. Compared with the first-person perspective, present self-processing in the third-person perspective was more abstract and generalized, which may reflect that the third-person perspective has the same distancing function as time. This study can deepen understandings on temporal self-appraisals from different perspectives.

The effects of cueing episodic future thinking on delay discounting in children, adolescents, and adults

Discounting the value of delayed rewards such that even a relatively small, immediately available reward is preferred to a larger delayed reward is a commonly observed human trait. Children are particularly steep discounters of delayed rewards as evidenced by delay of gratification studies. In recent years, however, a growing literature indicates that cueing individuals to imagine personal future events attenuates their discounting of delayed rewards. The present studies extend this literature by examining whether cueing future thinking promotes patient choices in children and adolescents. In Experiment 1 we found that cueing future thinking had no effect on 8–11-year-olds' (n = 177) delay discounting of either real or hypothetical rewards. In Experiment 2 we found that cueing adolescents (12–14-year-olds, n = 126) and adults (n = 122) to think about personal future events decreased their discounting of delayed rewards relative to three other conditions: a no cue control, an episodic memory condition and a novel ‘future other’ condition in which individuals imagine future events that might happen to a significant other person in their life. Cueing adults and adolescents to think about personal future events did not however affect how connected they felt to their future selves or their subjective sense of how close future time points felt to them – two constructs that have previously been shown to be related to delay discounting.

Effects of Dispositional and Instructional Time Perspective on Academic Performance and Motivations Among Primary School Students: A Concordance Hypothesis

Background:Dispositional future time perspective (FTP) has been acknowledged for its benefits on academic outcomes. Lacking in the literature are 1) understanding of FTP in children, 2) experimental studies, and 3) evidence for time perspective concordance (i.e., matching between dispositional and instructional FTP yield favorable outcomes).Aims:Therefore, this study examined whether dispositional FTP, instructional FTP, and their interaction were associated with academic outcomes including reading performance and academic motivations among primary school students.Sample:The participants were grade-2 or grade-3 Hong Kong students (N= 92; Age:M= 8.05,SD= 0.72; 45% girls).Methods:The participants rated their dispositional FTP and were randomly assigned to draw a picture of their future or present self with the assumption that they study hard. The students then completed a reading task and rated their intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation.Results:Better reading scores were found in future-oriented students who drew a future self and those less future-oriented who drew a present self. No concordance effects were found on motivations. Nevertheless, the future-drawing task led to a greater extrinsic motivation than the present-drawing task.Conclusions:Some children may have developed FTP in their middle childhood. Academic motivations may be more malleable at a younger age. When facing incongruent instructional context, more cognitive resources may be drained to resolve the dissonance and, thus, compromise the cognitive performance. Rather than a predominant focus on future achievements, a balanced emphasis on present and future or a temporally tailored instructional context for individuals may be considered in primary education.

Smartphone Time Machine: Tech-Supported Improvements in Time Perspective and Wellbeing Measures.

Individuals with a balanced time perspective, which includes good thoughts about the past, awareness of present constraints and adaptive planning for a positive future, are more likely to report optimal wellbeing. However, people who have had traumas such as adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are likely to have less balanced time perspectives and lower overall wellbeing when compared to those with fewer or no ACEs. Time perspective can be improved via time-travel narratives that support people in feeling connected to a wise and loving future version of themselves, an approach that has until now only been provided in counseling contexts. Our team used an iterative inclusive design process to shape a scalable time-travel narrative tool – a responsive and progressive web application called Time Machine. Among other functionalities, Time Machine allowed people to record and listen to messages as if they were from and to their past and future selves. Using pre-planned as well as post-hoc analyses, we analyzed quantitative and qualitative data from 96 paid design partners (participants) who were taken through a 26-day pilot study of the technology. Among other effects, the results revealed: (1) high engagement throughout the design process, (2) improvements in self-reported time perspective and overall wellbeing scores that were greater for those using Time Machine during an optional-use period, (3) twice as much improvement in overall wellbeing scores for design partners with high ACEs (16%) versus low ACEs (8%), and (4) feelings of unconditional love apparently mediating the relationship between scores on time perspective and overall wellbeing measures. We discuss the limitations of these results as well as implications for the future role of spiritually informed scalable time-travel narrative technologies in healthcare and wellness.

Effects of family affective involvement on aging self-stereotypes: An analysis based on latent growth model

<p id="C2">With the aging situation in China accelerating continuously, learning how to maintain physical and mental health in old age and promote successful aging has become the focus of researchers. As the study on this topic progresses, more and more researchers are realizing that aging is not only a biological decline but also the result of an altered psycho-social structure in the form of aging self-stereotypes. As a prerequisite central process by which aging stereotypes influence individual psychological behaviors and physiological constructions, aging self-stereotypes increase the likelihood that individuals will activate stereotypes of the group to which they belong or identify and engage in stereotype-related behaviors, thereby directly influencing their expectations, goals, and behaviors regarding self-development. Previous research has shown that the “possible future selves” facilitate processes related to the stereotypical self-conceptualization of old age. The “possible future selves” often derive from various areas of the older person’s experiences. As the family gradually becomes the most important place for older adults to socialize, the experiences of emotional support and interaction from family members are likely to influence the expectations of older adults on their “possible future selves” and the internalization of stereotypes as they grow older. However, few studies have focused systematically on the effects of older adults’ affective involvement from family members on aging self-stereotypes. There is also a lack of exploration regarding the dynamic trajectory of the relationship between family affective involvement and aging self-stereotypes in a longitudinal framework. Thus, the present study sought to examine the developmental trajectories of family affective involvement and aging self-stereotypes in older adults and the causal relationship between the two.<break/>In this study, a sample of 257 older adults aged over 55 was followed up for one year. The participants were asked to anonymously complete questionnaires. They were assured by the researchers that the study would be conducted purely for research purposes and that participation was voluntary. Latent growth modeling and cross-lagged analysis were used to examine older adults’ initial level of and growth in family affective involvement and aging self-stereotypes, respectively, as well as predict family affective involvement on aging self-stereotypes.<break/>Latent growth modeling showed that older adults’ perceptions of affective involvement from family members decreased linearly during the follow-up period while aging self-stereotypes increased linearly. In addition, the initial level of family affective involvement significantly predicted the initial level of and growth in aging self-stereotypes among older adults. Specifically, the lower the initial level of perceived affective involvement of family members, the higher the initial level of aging self-stereotypes in old age. Older adults’ lower initial levels of affective involvement from family members also predicted more rapid growth in aging self-stereotyping. Finally, the rate of decrease in family affective involvement predicted the increases of aging self-stereotypes over time, that is, a steeper decline in the family affective involvement of older adults predicted a steeper increase of aging self-stereotypes. Similarly, cross-lagged analysis showed that family affective involvement negatively predicted aging self-stereotypes after six months.<break/>Our findings suggest that developmental trajectories of aging self-stereotypes in older adults are influenced by changes in family affective involvement. This study expands the existing research on family affective involvement and aging self-stereotypes. A better understanding of the causal effects of older adults’ affective involvement from family members on aging self-stereotypes can also help ameliorate intervention programs designed to reduce the internalization of aging stereotypes and improve negative aging self-stereotypes.

‘Own your narrative’: teenagers as producers and consumers of porn in Netflix’s Sex Education

ABSTRACT Netflix’s Sex Education both represents sex education and educates viewers about sex. From the opening scene of the first episode, viewers are positioned to see this series as one that is not afraid to represent explicitly the details of a range of sexual experiences. The series’ frank depiction of sexual relationships between characters, and its exploration of characters’ hopes, fears, and choices regarding ways to express their sexual desire is, arguably, ground-breaking. This paper focuses upon the ways in which the series represents young people as producers and consumers of pornographic/erotic narratives, harnessing the communication options within their social settings to develop understandings of, and share, information that is often structured as ‘inappropriate’ for under-18 year-olds. Sex Education sits at the intersection of information (seeking), communication, and society, as young people explore issues of crucial interest and importance to them, which have been all but ignored in most of their school curriculum offerings. Challenging a dominant social perception of sexually-explicit materials as harmful to young people, and suggesting instead that such materials may be beneficial, the series demonstrates how young people may come together to learn about themselves and each other, even as they confront the double standards of a hypersexualised society that offers no legitimate speaking position to under-18s. In this environment, with adults absent from authentic discussion, young people co-construct their future adult selves through producing, consuming, and discussing sexual content (and activities) in conversation with other young people.

Motivating or stigmatising? The public health and media messaging surrounding COVID-19 and obesity: a qualitative think aloud study

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to explore how individuals with overweight and obesity living in the UK respond to the public health and media messaging surrounding COVID-19 and obesity.Design/methodology/approachQualitative interview study with a think aloud protocol. A total of 10 participants self-reported to have overweight, obesity or as actively trying to lose weight were recruited through social media and were asked to think aloud whilst exposed to four sets of public health and media materials describing the link between COVID-19 and obesity. Interviews were conducted over zoom, recorded and transcribed verbatim.FindingsThree primary themes were identified through thematic analysis: “flawed messaging”, “COVID-19 as a teachable moment” and “barriers to change”. Transcending these themes was the notion of balance. Whilst the messaging around COVID-19 and obesity was deemed problematic; for some, it was a teachable moment to facilitate change when their future self and physical health was prioritised. Yet, when focussing on their mental health in the present participants felt more overwhelmed by the barriers and were less likely to take the opportunity to change.Practical implicationsFindings hold implications for public health messaging, highlighting the need for balance between being educational and informative but also supportive, so as to achieve maximum efficacy.Originality/valueThis study offers a novel and useful insight into how the public health and media messaging concerning COVID-19 risk and obesity is perceived by those with overweight and obesity.

Comprehensive Comparison of VNE Solutions Based on Different Coordination Approaches

Virtualization is commonly accepted as the catalyst that would grant the internet the ability to shed the shackles of legacy technologies and evolve to its future self. In order to make this transformation feasible, unavoidable concurrent radical remodeling of all the involved counterparts is required, particularly in the context of automatically and optimally serving application requests by taking advantage of new virtualized environments and their latent capabilities. A considerable number of embedding strategies that efficiently map virtual computational and networking demands over physical resources have already been proposed in the literature, following different strategies. Among these suggested strategies, different coordination proposals have been adopted, in order to solve the node and link mapping functions. In this paper, we study the capabilities of the most popular embedding strategies, based on their coordination categorization. Our study confirms that by invoking a coordination strategy, especially the single stage one, added benefits on multiple performance layers can be achieved. Moreover, we propose a new mixed coordination algorithm, essentially creating a new category in the field of VNE coordination strategies.

Age-related changes in ongoing thought relate to external context and individual cognition

Understanding how age-related changes in cognition manifest in the real world is an important goal. One means of capturing these changes involves “experience sampling” participant’s self-reported thoughts. Research has shown age-related changes in ongoing thought: e.g., older adults have fewer thoughts unrelated to the here-and-now. However, it is currently unclear how these changes reflect cognitive aging or lifestyle changes. 78 younger adults and 35 older adults rated their thought contents along 20 dimensions and the difficulty of their current activity in their daily lives. They also performed cognitive tasks in the laboratory. In a set of exploratory analyses, we found that older adults spent more time thinking positive, wanted thoughts, particularly in demanding contexts, and less time mind wandering about their future selves. Past-related thought related to episodic memory differently in older and younger adults. These findings inform the use of experience sampling to understand cognitive aging.

Dynamic identities and self-perception of aging: The case of Turkish cosmetic surgery patients

Drawing on the idea that aging is a physical and a psychosocial process, this study aimed to understand self-perceived aging by focusing on the cultural and experiential perspective presented by Turkish women. The social and interactive aspects were reflected in their self-perceptions of aging, which did not necessarily entail physical degradation or health problems. This study focused on patients who underwent anti-aging operations, and cosmetic surgery was revealed to be a convenient and quick way to eliminate the physical signs of aging. By analyzing 31 in-depth interviews with patients of ages ranging from 21 to 75, three interpretations of aging were identified and discussed. Past-oriented women wanted to return to “good old times,” present-oriented women wanted to balance their inner and outer selves, and future-oriented women desired a total transformation in their lives. This study contributes to our understanding of self-perceived aging and presents findings from patients who did not necessarily conceptualize their selves as moving forward in time. Successful aging may be possible by means of past, present, or future selves, and “success” in aging is socio-culturally interpreted by these women in addition to more objective definitions of well-being and medical norms.

Professional identity formation-oriented mentoring technique as a method to improve self-regulated learning: A mixed-method study

Introduction: Previous studies indicate that professional identity formation (PIF), the formation of a self-identity with the internalised values and norms of professionalism, may influence self-regulated learning (SRL). However, it remains unclear whether a PIF-oriented intervention can improve SRL in clinical education. The aim of this study was to explore whether a PIF-oriented mentoring platform improves SRL in a clinical clerkship. Methods: A mixed-methods study was conducted. Forty-one students in a community-based clinical clerkship (CBCC) used a PIF-oriented mentoring platform. They articulated the values and norms of professionalism in a professional identity essay, elaborated on future professional self-image, and reflected on their current compared to future selves. They made a study plan while referring to PIF-based self-reflection and completed it. The control group of 41 students completed CBCC without the PIF-oriented mentoring platform. Changes in SRL between the two groups were quantitatively compared using the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire. We explore how PIF elements in the platform affected SRL by qualitative analysis of questionnaire and interview data. Results: A moderate improvement in intrinsic goal orientation (p = 0.005, ε2 = 0.096) and a mild improvement in critical thinking (p = 0.041, ε2 = 0.051) were observed in the PIF-oriented platform group. Qualitative analysis revealed that the PIF-oriented platform fostered professional responsibility as a key to expanding learning goals. Gaining authentic knowledge professionally fostered critical thinking, and students began to elaborate knowledge in line with professional task processes. Conclusion: A PIF-oriented mentoring platform helped students improve SRL during a clinical clerkship.

Paternalism: A Flawed Basis for Liberty-limiting Policies? Arguments against Benevolent Coercion

This article discusses coercive paternalism, a concept of liberty-limitations that has gained significant attention in recent decades. In opposition to the libertarian type of paternalism proposed by the well-known ‘Nudgers’ Richard H. Thaler and Cass R. Sunstein (2008), Sarah Conly (2013) advocates coercive interventions in Against Autonomy: Justifying Coercive Paternalism. Her influential work serves as a basis for scrutinizing the validity of coercive paternalism’s presuppositions as well as the internal coherence of the concept. Following the fundamental groundwork of especially Joel Feinberg and Gerald Dworkin, arguments against coercive paternalism are evaluated. They include the reciprocal (rather than unilateral) relationship between the ‘present self’ and the ‘future self’ in the paternalist’s account, the questionable legitimacy of punishment for self-harming behaviour and of coercion in general, the challenges of so-called ‘perfectionism’ and slippery-slopes, as well as a misconception about the alleged lack of rationality that serves as a justification for coercive paternalism. The article concludes by suggesting that – given the flaws of the concept – it may be reasonable to favour soft paternalism à la John Stuart Mill based on the harm principle over Conly’s proposal for a more extensive form of coercive paternalism.

The Divergent Mental Health Effects of Dashed Expectations and Unfulfilled Aspirations: Evidence from American Lawyers’ Careers

Considerable work has shown that optimistic future orientations can be a resource for resilience across individuals’ lives. At the same time, research has shown little downside to “shooting for the stars” and failing. Here, we bring these competing insights to the study of lawyers’ careers, investigating the relationship between mental health and failure in achieving desired career advancement. To do this, we differentiate between expectations and aspirations for the future, a conceptual distinction that has been much theorized but little tested. Using longitudinal data, we show that dashed expectations of making partner are associated with depreciated mental health outcomes, whereas a similar relationship does not exist for unfulfilled aspirations. We conclude that inasmuch as expectations are more deeply rooted in an individual’s realistic sense of their future self, failing to achieve what is expected is more psychologically damaging than failing to achieve what is simply aspired. Our findings contrast with studies of younger people that demonstrate fewer consequences for unfulfilled future orientations, and so we highlight the importance of specifying how particular future-oriented beliefs fit into distinct career and life course trajectories, for better or for worse. In the process, we contribute to the academic literatures on future orientations, work, and mental health.

Anxiety and temporal self-appraisal: How people with anxiety evaluate themselves over time

BackgroundPrevious studies found that psychopathology is associated with distinct self-perceptions over time. Euthymic individuals report experiencing a self-enhancement bias, with self-appraisal increasing over time. In contrast, depressed individuals report viewing a personal decline from past to present and anticipated self-improvement from present to future. This study examined the association between the singular presence of anxiety and temporal self-appraisal. MethodsUsing the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale, this study examined a depressed (n = 142), anxious (n = 95), comorbid depressed and anxious (n = 335), and euthymic group (non-depressed and non-anxious, n = 535), on a validated task of temporal self-appraisal. ResultsAnxiety has a unique association with temporal self-appraisal that differs from the other disorders examined in this study. Specifically, individuals with anxiety had a similar positive trend of self-view to the euthymic group; however, their overall trend was lower at each temporal point. Individuals with depression had a stable past-to-present self-view and an improving present-to-future self-view. LimitationsThe use of an online self-report sample without longitudinal assessment of variables, while sufficient for the intent of the present study, limits the potential extrapolation from this sample, as well as prevents the determination of the direction of causality. ConclusionsWhile individuals with anxiety demonstrate a positive sense of improvement over time, their psychopathology is associated with a negative bias in their perception of their past, present, and future selves. These findings have important implications for clinicians regarding potential interventions and treatment for anxiety and depression.

Predictors of academic achievement in distance learning for nursing students

BackgroundDistance learning (DL) is no longer simply an alternative method in the new educational environment induced by COVID-19. The ability of learners to control the learning process is becoming an essential prerequisite for DL because learners are physically separated from their instructors. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the factors influencing DL and investigate the appropriate learning strategy. ObjectivesThis study aimed to identify the relationships between academic achievement and the factors influencing DL. DesignThis study adopted a cross-sectional design. SettingThis study was conducted in nursing colleges in Korea. ParticipantsTwo hundred and one undergraduate nursing students in Korea participated in this study. MethodsAn online survey of academic achievement, self-regulated learning (SRL), learning flow, engagement, academic stress, and grade point average was conducted using Google Surveys on December 22 and 23, 2020 at four nursing colleges. A hierarchical multiple linear regression model was conducted to identify the predictors of academic achievement. Age and sex were included in the regression model in the first step. Then, learning flow and engagement were included in the second step, and SRL was included in the final step. ResultsLearning flow (β = 0.37, p < .001), engagement (β = 0.23, p = .001), and SRL (β = 0.22 p = .003) explained 49.5% of the variance in academic achievement (Adj R2 = 0.50, F = 40.21, p < .001). After controlling for sex, age, flow state, and engagement in learning, SRL explained an additional 2% of the variance in academic achievement (R2 change = 0.02, p = .003). ConclusionsThe development of learning strategies, including SRL ability, learning flow and engagement in DL, contributes not only to students achieving high academic competency but also to educating students about perceptions of their ‘future possible self’.

My future entrepreneurial self: antecedents of entrepreneurial identity aspiration

PurposeEntrepreneurial identity aspiration refers to the desire to occupy an entrepreneurial role in the future and is an essential impetus for initially engaging in entrepreneurial activities. Building on identity theory, the article investigates the effects of personal attitudes, experiences and inclination towards specific practices on the strength of entrepreneurial identity aspiration.Design/methodology/approachThis article applies multiple linear regression analysis to test the developed hypotheses on an original sample of 127 vocational college students in Austria.FindingsResults show that risk-taking propensity, proactiveness, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and competitiveness drive entrepreneurial identity aspiration. The effects of innovativeness and need for achievement motivation are nonsignificant. Data further suggest that entrepreneurial identity aspiration is related to gender, while entrepreneurial exposure and previous entrepreneurship education show no or adverse effects.Practical implicationsBased on our findings, the authors argue that education should focus on teaching and discussing the identified attitudes and inclinations to foster the formation of entrepreneurial identities. Doing so increases students' aspirations and provides them with the necessary cognitive underpinnings for subsequent entrepreneurial action. The article suggests action-based teaching to achieve this goal.Originality/valueThis article is the first to investigate antecedents of entrepreneurial identity aspiration by connecting it to essential concepts of entrepreneurship research. The authors extend previous work on entrepreneurial identity and add to the theoretical approaches for research in entrepreneurship education. Furthermore, the article points out central aspects that should receive additional attention in educational settings.

Taking a closer look at the speaking of ideal self of Spanish undergraduates

Over the past fifteen years, research on second language (or L2) motivation has been dominated by Dörnyei’s influential paradigm, the L2 Motivational Self System. Students’ imagined visualisations are key components in this theory, as those students who have a clear ideal self-image with an L2 component will probably be more motivated to learn a language than others that have not established a desired future state goal for themselves. This article reports the qualitative findings of a mixed-method study that explored the effects of a multimodal intervention with influential speakers on changing the students’ attitudes in public speaking. Semi-structured interviews and open-ended questionnaires were conducted with 11 engineering undergraduates, who volunteered to take part in the present study. Qualitative data showed that the multimodal intervention accompanied by goal setting (i.e., students’ classroom oral presentations) triggered an increase in some students’ future speaking selves. Six of the eleven students demonstrated a slight development in their levels of linguistic self-confidence, which made their vision of their ideal L2 speaking selves more realistic and clearer. The article discusses the implications of these findings and calls for a pedagogical shift that embraces more opportunities to assess the multimodal skills and strategies students need to become fluent L2 speakers.