Fusion Zone Size Research Articles

On the Failure Behavior of Highly Cold Worked Low Carbon Steel Resistance Spot Welds

Highly cold worked (HCW) low carbon steel sheets with cellular structure in the range of 200 to 300 nm are fabricated via constrained groove pressing process. Joining of the sheets is carried out by resistance spot welding process at different welding currents and times. Thereafter, failure behavior of these welded samples during tensile-shear test is investigated. Considered concepts include; failure load, fusion zone size, failure mode, ultimate shear stress, failure absorbed energy, and fracture surface. The results show that HCW low carbon steel spot welds have higher failure peak load with respect to the as-received one at different welding currents and times. Also, current limits for failure mode transition from interfacial to pullout or from pullout to tearing are reduced for HCW samples. Fusion zone size is the main geometrical factor which affects the failure load variations. Ultimate shear stress of spot welds is increased with decreasing the heat input and for HCW samples at a specific welding current and time, it is lower than that of the as-received ones. Before pullout mode, failure absorbed energy (FAE) for HCW low carbon steel spot welds is higher than that of the as-received one, but after failure mode transition, trend would be vice versa and FAE of the as-received spot welds is extremely higher (about 3 times). In addition, spot welds fracture surface (in interfacial failure mode) for HCW sample is more dimpled which indicates higher energy absorption than that of the as-received one.

Simulation and experiment for crack arrest in remanufacturing

Remanufacturing is the only way for sustainable development of mechanical equipment manufacturing. For remanufacturing blanks containing cracks, the primary task is the prevention of crack propagation to ensure effectiveness of the manufacturing processes to follow. When pulsed current passes through a specimen, due to the existence of crack, the temperature around the crack tips rises sharply and may even climb above the fusion point of the material, which causes the crack tip to become blunt. In this work, with compressor rotor blade material FV520B as a specimen, the distributions of current density, temperature field, and stress field are calculated at the instant of discharge based on the thermo-electro-structure coupled theory. The crack arrest experiment is performed on high pulsed current discharge device of type HCPD-I. By making comparisons of morphology, microstructure, and size of fusion zone and heat-affected zone (HAZ) around the crack tip before and after energizing, the relationships between the sizes of fusion zone and the HAZ and the discharge energy and the current path are derived. The obvious partition and refined grains around the crack tip are prominent because of violent temperature change. The experimental and simulation results are found in fine agreement. The high current pulsed discharge can be used effectively to prevent a crack to further expand and show substantial potentials for application in remanufacturing domain.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of resistance spot welded dissimilar thickness DP780/DP600 dual-phase steel joints

In this study, resistance spot welding (RSW) experiments were performed in order to evaluate the microstructure and mechanical properties of single-lap joints between DP780 and DP600. The results show that the weld joints consist of three regions including base metal (BM), heat affected zone (HAZ) and fusion zone (FZ). The grain size and martensite volume fractions increase in the order of BM, HAZ and FZ. The hardness in the FZ is significantly higher than hardness of base metals. Tensile properties of the joints were described in terms of the failure modes and static load-carrying capabilities. Two distinct failure modes were observed during the tensile shear test of the joints: interfacial failure (IF) and pullout failure (PF). The FZ size plays a dominate role in failure modes of the joints.

EFFECT OF ELECTRODE FORCE ON FRACTURE TYPE OF DQSK STEEL RESISTANCE SPOT WELDS

Failure mode is a qualitative measure of resistance spot weld performance. To ensure reliability of resistance spot welds during vehicle lifetime, process parameters should be adjusted so that the pullout failure mode is guaranteed. In this paper, the effect of electrode force on the failure mode of drawing quality specially killed (DQSK) steel resistance spot welds during the quasistatic tensile-shear test is investigated. Results showed that there is a minimum weld nugget size to ensure pullout failure mode. It was found that increasing electrode force decreases fusion zone size and therefore leads to transition of failure mode from pullout to interfacial mode.

Strength and infrared assessment of spot-welded sheets on ferrite steel

This paper addresses the mechanical properties of ferrite steel resistance spot welds during quasi-static tensile test. The mechanical properties are described in terms of peak load. It was shown that the fusion zone size is the most important. The fusion zone size can control the solidification of the grain which controlling factor of spot weld peak load. The dendritic grain and equiaxial axial grains occurred in the microstructures of the welded specimens joined at various welding currents and electrode forces. The failure mechanism of resistance spot welds during tensile test was studied with the aid of thermography. The thermography gives visible data of temperature changes on the surface of specimen. In light of the failure mechanism, the simple model is proposed to ensure pull out failure mode.

Failure mode of HSLA/DQSK dissimilar steel resistance spot welds

The failure mode of resistance spot welds (RSWs) (interfacial versus pullout) is a qualitative measure of RSW performance. Considering the adverse effect of interfacial failure mode on the vehicle crashworthiness, process parameters should be adjusted so that the pullout failure mode is guaranteed, ensuring reliability of spot welds during vehicle lifetime. In this paper, the microstructure and mechanical properties of dissimilar RSWs between HSLA420 and drawing quality specially killed low carbon steels are studied with particular attention to failure mode. Increasing the welding current alters the failure mode from interfacial failure mode to pullout mode due to the increase in fusion zone (FZ) size. The minimum required FZ size to ensure the pullout failure mode was estimated using an analytical model. The FZ size proved to be the most important controlling factor of the spot weld peak load and energy absorption.

On the Failure Mode of Resistance Spot Welded Hsla 420 Steel / Tryb Uszkodzenia Zgrzewanych Spoin Stali Hsla 420

Failure mode of resistance spot welds (interfacial vs. pullout) is a qualitative measure of resistance spot weld performance. Considering adverse effect of interfacial failure mode on the vehicle crashworthiness, process parameters should be adjusted so that the pullout failure mode is guaranteed ensuring reliability of spot welds during vehicle lifetime. In this paper, metallurgical and mechanical properties of HSLA 420 resistance spot welds are studied with particular attention to the failure mode. Results showed that the conventional weld size recommendation of 4t0:5 (t is sheet thickness) is not sufficient to guarantee pullout failure mode for HSLA steel spot welds during the tensile-shear test. Considering the failure mechanism of spot welds during the tensileshear test, minimum required fusion zone size to ensure the pullout failure mode was estimated using an analytical model. Fusion zone size proved to be the most important controlling factor for peak load and energy absorption of HSLA 420 resistance spot weld.

Study on laser welding of fuel clad tubes and end plugs made of modified 9Cr–1Mo steel for metallic fuel of Fast Breeder Reactors

A procedure for Pulsed Laser Beam Welding (PLBW) has been developed for fabrication of fuel pins made of modified 9Cr–1Mo steel for metallic fuel proposed to be used in future in India’s Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) programme. Initial welding trials of the samples were carried out with different average power using Nd-YAG based PLBW process. After analyzing the welds, average power for the weld was optimized for the required depth of penetration and weld quality. Subsequently, keeping the average power constant, the effect of various other welding parameters like laser peak power, pulse frequency, pulse duration and energy per pulse on weld joint integrity were studied and a procedure that would ensure welds of acceptable quality with required depth of penetration, minimum size of fusion zone and Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) were finalized. This procedure is also found to reduce the volume fraction delta-ferrite in the fusion zone.

On failure mode of resistance spot welded DP980 advanced high strength steel

This paper aims at investigating the correlation between metallurgical and mechanical characteristics of DP980 dual phase steel resistance spot welds with attention focused on the transition in failure mode from interfacial to pullout mode during the tensile shear test. It was studied whether the conventional/industrial weld size criteria can produce pullout failure modes for DP980 spot welds. Based on theoretical analysis and experimental results, there is a minimum fusion zone size which beyond that the interfacial failure mode is avoided. Results showed that by increasing welding current, pullout failure mode was promoted due to increasing the fusion zone size and encouraging martensite tempering in subcritical heat affected zone (HAZ). Fusion zone size was proved to be key factor controlling mechanical properties of DP980 welds in terms of peak load, ductility and failure energy.Ce document vise à examiner la corrélation entre les caractéristiques métallurgiques et mécaniques de soudures par points par résistance de l’acier biphasé DP980, en mettant l’accent sur la transition du mode de défaillance de mode d’interface à mode par arrachement lors de l’essai de traction-cisaillement. On voulait savoir si les critères conventionnels ou industriels de taille de la soudure pouvaient produire des modes de défaillance par arrachement des soudures par points de DP980. L’analyse théorique et les résultats expérimentaux indiquent qu’il y a une taille minimale de la zone de fusion au-delà de laquelle on évite le mode de défaillance d’interface. Les résultats ont montré qu’en augmentant le courant de soudage, le mode de défaillance par arrachement était favorisé, à cause de l’augmentation de la taille de la zone de fusion et de l’encouragement du revenu de la martensite dans la HAZ sous critique. On a démontré que la taille de la zone de fusion constituait une composante clé contrôlant les propriétés mécaniques des soudures de DP980 en ce qui a trait à la charge de pointe, à la ductilité et à l’énergie de défaillance.

Microstructure and mechanical properties of laser-MIG hybrid welding of 1420 Al-Li alloy

This paper investigates the microstructure and mechanical properties of 1420 aluminum–lithium (Al-Li) alloy joints before and after heat treatment by CO2 laser-metal inter gas (MIG) hybrid welding. The 5-mm-thick 1420 Al-Li alloy plates were welded by CO2 laser-MIG hybrid welding. Full penetration joints without any defects were produced. Optic and scanning electron microscopy were used to study the microstructure and fractograph characteristics. The results show that the microstructures of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and fusion zone exist as a predominantly discontinuous equiaxed dendritic structure and as a fine cellular dendritic structure, respectively. After heat treatment, the microstructures change from dendritic structure to a spheroidal crystal; the grain size of fusion zone is obviously larger than that of the base metal and the HAZ. Furthermore, the hardness recovers substantially to a level similar to that of the parent material. The tensile strengths of the joints in the as-welded condition and after heat treatment are 223 and 267 MPa, reaching up to 57 and 68 % of the parent materials’ strength, respectively. The fractographs show that the joint as-welded condition exhibits the characteristics of dominated dimples and a small amount tear ridges, which are associated with the mixed ductile and brittle facture mechanisms. The fracture mode transforms from a transgranular to an intergranular after heat treatment; cleavage cracking coupled with an intergranular microvoid coalescence fracture mechanism occurs.

Susceptibility to interfacial failure mode in similar and dissimilar resistance spot welds of DP600 dual phase steel and low carbon steel during cross-tension and tensile-shear loading conditions

Abstract The paper investigates the failure mode transition from interfacial to pullout in similar and dissimilar combinations of DP600 dual phase steel and low carbon steel (LCS) under tensile-shear (TS) and cross-tension (CT) loading conditions. In both CT and TS loading conditions, a transition in the failure mode from interfacial to pullout was observed with increasing fusion zone size beyond a critical value (DC). The tendency to fail in interfacial mode during the CT loading was increased in the order of LCS/LCS, DP600/LCS and DP600/DP600. It was shown that interfacial to pullout failure mode transition during the CT test is governed by the fracture toughness of the fusion zone and strength of the pullout failure location (i.e. heat affected zone). It was shown that increasing carbon equivalent of the fusion zone promoted interfacial failure mode in CT loading condition. The high carbon equivalent of DP600 steel led to formation of hard and brittle martensite, which in turn promotes crack propagation through fusion zone. In DP600/LCS combination, decreased carbon equivalent and fusion zone hardness through dilution with the LCS promotes pullout failure at smaller weld sizes. DC during the TS loading is increased in the order of DP600/LCS, LCS/LCS and DP600/DP600. No correlation between fusion zone carbon equivalent and the tendency to fail in IF mode during TS loading was found. Failure mode transition during the TS loading is controlled by hardness of fusion zone and stiffness of the joint. The lowest DC for DP600/LCS is a function of its high fusion zone hardness (in comparison to LCS/LCS combination) and its low stiffness (in comparison to DP600/DP600 combination).

Failure of resistance spot welds: tensile shear versus coach peel loading conditions

This paper aims at investigating the failure behaviour of resistance spot welds under tensile shear (TS) and coach peel (CP) loading conditions. A failure mechanism was proposed to describe both interfacial and pullout failure modes in each loading condition. The mechanisms were confirmed by SEM investigations, examining the cross-sections of the fractured welds to detail the fracture path. The experimental results showed that in the pullout failure mode during TS testing, necking is initiated at the nugget circumference in the base metal, and then failure propagates along the nugget circumference in the sheet, leading to the final fracture, while pullout failure during the CP test occurred by crack initiation and propagation near the weld nugget/heat affected zone boundary. The interfacial failure to pullout failure mode transition in the TS and CP tests was also studied. The critical weld nugget size required to ensure the pullout failure mode was obtained for each loading condition. The critical fusion zone size to ensure pullout failure mode during the TS test was larger than that of the CP test. It was found that the load bearing capacity of the spot welds under CP is significantly lower than that of the TS test.

Weld nugget formation and mechanical properties of three-sheet resistance spot welded low carbon steel

In this paper, weld nugget formation and mechanical properties of 1·25/1·25/1·25 mm three-sheet low carbon steel resistance spot welds are investigated. Heat conduction from sheet/sheet interfaces (i.e. places with higher electrical resistance) to the geometrical centre of the joint and heat dissipation via water cooled electrodes play an important role in weld nugget growth of three-sheet resistance spot welding. It was shown that the fusion zone size along the sheet/sheet interface was greater than that of along geometrical centre of the joint leading to high tendency to interfacial failure. Fusion zone size at the sheet/sheet interface proved to be the most important controlling factor of mechanical performance of three-sheet spot weld in terms of peak load and energy absorption.Dans cet article, on examine la formation du noyau de soudure et les propriétés mécaniques de trois tôles d’acier de 1·25–1·25–1·25 mm à faible teneur en carbone, soudées par points par résistance. La conduction de chaleur des interfaces tôle - tôle (c’est-à-dire les endroits ayant une résistance électrique plus élevée) vers le centre géométrique du joint et la dissipation de chaleur par l’intermédiaire d’électrodes refroidies à l’eau jouent un rôle important dans la croissance du noyau de soudure du soudage à trois tôles par points par résistance. On a montré que la taille de la zone de fusion au long de l’interface tôle - tôle était plus grande que la taille de la zone de fusion au long du centre géométrique du joint, donnant naissance à une tendance élevée à la défaillance interfaciale. Il s’est avéré que la taille de la zone de fusion à l’interface tôle - tôle était le facteur de contrôle le plus important du rendement mécanique de la soudure par points à trois tôles en ce qui a trait à la charge de pointe et à l’absorption d’énergie.

Failure mode transition in similar and dissimilar resistance spot welds of HSLA and low carbon steels

The aim of this paper is to investigate and analyse the failure mode transition from interfacial to pullout in similar and dissimilar resistance spot welds of low carbon steel (LCS) and high strength low alloy (HSLA) steel during the tensile shear test. Correlations between critical fusion zone size required to ensure the pullout failure mode and weld hardness characteristics were established. It was found that HSLA/HSLA combination exhibits the highest tendency to fail in interfacial failure mode, while HSLA/LCS combination exhibited pullout failure mode at much smaller fusion zone size. Finally, peak load, ductility and energy absorption of similar and dissimilar combination were compared.Le but de cet article est d’examiner et d’analyser la transition du mode de défaillance à l’interface à défaillance par arrachement de soudures semblables ou dissemblables par points par résistance de l’acier à faible teneur en carbone (LCS) et de l’acier à haute résistance faiblement allié (HSLA) lors de l’essai de cisaillement par traction. Les corrélations entre la taille critique de la zone de fusion exigeaient de s’assurer d’établir les caractéristiques du mode de défaillance par arrachement et de la dureté de la soudure. On a trouvé que la combinaison HSLA/HSLA exhibait la tendance la plus élevée à défaillir à l’interface, alors que la combinaison HSLA/LCS exhibait un mode de défaillance par arrachement à une beaucoup plus petite taille de la zone de fusion. Finalement, on a comparé la charge maximale, la ductilité et l’absorption d’énergie de combinaisons similaires et dissimilaires.

Failure Behavior of Three-Steel Sheets Resistance Spot Welds: Effect of Joint Design

There is a lack of comprehensive understanding concerning failure characteristics of three-steel sheet resistance spot welds. In this article, macro/microstructural characteristics and failure behavior of 1.25/1.25/1.25 mm three-sheet low carbon steel resistance spot welds are investigated. To evaluate the mechanical properties of the joint, the tensile-shear test was performed in three different joint designs. Mechanical performance of the joint was described in terms of peak load, energy absorption, and failure mode. The critical weld nugget size required to insure pullout failure mode was obtained for each joint design. It was found that the joint design significantly affects the mechanical properties and the tendency to fail in the interfacial failure mode. It was also observed that stiffer joint types exhibit higher critical weld size. Fusion zone size along sheet/sheet interface proved to be the most important controlling factor of spot weld peak load and energy absorption.

Influence of welding parameters on peak load and energy absorption of dissimilar resistance spot welds of DP600 and AISI 1008 steels

This paper addresses the mechanical performance of dissimilar resistance spot welds between DP600 and AISI 1008 low carbon steels. The weldability lobe was established and proper welding conditions to produce welds with sufficient size and without expulsion were determined. Correlations among the process parameters (welding current and welding time), physical spot weld attributes (fusion zone size and electrode indentation depth) and mechanical performance (peak load and energy absorption) were analysed. It was shown that the increases in welding current and welding time result in increases in fusion zone size and electrode indentation depth. In the low heat input welding condition, welds failed in interfacial failure mode. Increasing welding heat input results in sufficient weld size and promotes pullout failure mode with improved mechanical properties in terms of peak load and failure energy. However, a further increase in heat input caused metal expulsion and the failure mode was changed to partial pullout–partial thickness mode with reduced energy absorption capability.Cet article discute du rendement mécanique de soudures dissimilaires par points entre les alliages à faible carbone DP600 et AISI 1008. On a établi le lobe de soudabilité et l’on a déterminé les conditions appropriées de soudage afin de produire des soudures d’une taille suffisante et sans expulsion. On analyse la corrélation entre les paramètres du processus (courant de soudage et temps de soudage), les attributs physiques de la soudure par points (taille de la zone de fusion et profondeur d’indentation de l’électrode) et le rendement mécanique (charge maximale et absorption d’énergie). On a montré qu’une augmentation du courant de soudage et du temps de soudage avait pour résultat une augmentation de la taille de la zone de fusion et de la profondeur d’indentation de l’électrode. Sous condition de soudage à faible apport de chaleur, les soudures défaillaient en mode de défaillance à l’interface. L’augmentation de l’apport de chaleur de soudage avait pour résultat une taille de soudure suffisante et favorisait le mode de défaillance par arrachement avec des propriétés mécaniques améliorées quant à la charge maximale et à l’énergie de défaillance. Cependant, une augmentation additionnelle de l’apport de chaleur résultait en l’expulsion du métal et le mode de défaillance se changeait en un mode d’arrachement partiel-épaisseur partielle avec capacité réduite d’absorption d’énergie.

Mechanical properties and microstructure of resistance spot welded severely deformed low carbon steel

► Resistance spot welding is successfully used for severely deformed steel sheet. ► Microstructures of FZ and HAZ are refined to lower sizes at higher pass number. ► Mechanical properties in FZ and HAZ are increased with increasing the pass number. ► Electrode dip and nugget diameter are increased with increasing the pass number. The welding of nanostructured low carbon steel sheets produced by severe plastic deformation (SPD) has been considered in the present paper. Constrained groove pressing (CGP) method is used for imposing the severe plastic deformation to the steel sheets as a large pre-strain. The SPDed sheets are joined using resistance spot welding (RSW) process. The results show that severe plastic deformation can effectively increase the electrical resistivity of steel sheets; therefore it can affect the microstructure and mechanical properties of spot welds. Microstructure and mechanical properties of fusion zone, heat affected zone (HAZ), recrystallized zone and base metal of SPDed sheets are investigated and the results are compared with those of as-received specimens. The results show that with increasing the large pre-strain in sheets, at constant welding parameters (welding current and time), the fusion zone size, electrode indentation and nugget diameter are increased. Thus, peak load and hardness in fusion zone and HAZ are increased with increasing the CGP pass number. Also, the microstructures of fusion zone and HAZ are refined to lower sizes for larger pre-strained specimens.

Numerical and experimental study of nugget size growth in resistance spot welding of austenitic stainless steels

A 2D axisymmetric electro-thermo-mechanical finite element (FE) model is developed to study the effect of welding time and current intensity on nugget size in resistance spot welding process of AISI type 304L austenitic stainless steel sheets using ANSYS commercial software package. In order to improve the accuracy, temperature-dependent properties of materials are taken into account during the simulation. The diameter and thickness of computed weld nuggets are compared with experimental results. The FE predicted weld nugget growth and nugget size agree well with experimental results. The effects of welding time and current intensity on nugget growth are also studied. Generally, increasing welding time and current is accompanied by an increase in the fusion zone size with a decreasing slope. However if expulsion occurs, nugget size reduces due to melt spattering. Except for an initial nugget formation stage, welding time has minor effect on nugget size in comparison with welding current.

Failure mode transition in AHSS resistance spot welds. Part II: Experimental investigation and model validation

The objective of this paper is to investigate and analyze the transition criteria from interfacial to pullout failure mode in AHSS resistance spot welds during the tensile-shear test by the use of both experimental and analytical approaches. Spot welds were made on three dual phase steel grades including DP600, DP780 and DP980. A low strength drawing quality special killed (DQSK) steel and AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel were also tested as a baseline for comparison. The microstructure and mechanical strength of the welds were characterized using metallographic techniques and the tensile-shear testing. Correlations among critical fusion zone (FZ) size required to ensure the pullout failure mode, weld microstructure and weld hardness characteristics were developed. It was found that critical FZ size increases in the order of DQSK, DP600, DP980, DP780 and AISI304. No direct relationship was found between the tensile strength of the base metal and the critical FZ size. It was concluded that low hardness ratio of FZ to pullout failure location and high susceptibility to form shrinkage voids are two primary reasons for high tendency of AHSS to fail in interfacial mode. HAZ softening can improve RSW mechanical performance in terms of load bearing capacity and energy absorption capability. This phenomenon promotes PF mode at smaller FZ sizes. This fact can explain smaller critical FZ size measured for DP980 in comparison with DP780. The results obtained from the model were compared to the experimental results and the literature and a reasonable agreement was obtained.

Failure mode transition in AHSS resistance spot welds. Part I. Controlling factors

Failure mode of resistance spot welds is a qualitative indicator of weld performance. Two major types of spot weld failure are pull-out and interfacial fracture. Interfacial failure, which typically results in reduced energy absorption capability, is considered unsatisfactory and industry standards are often designed to avoid this occurrence. Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS) spot welds exhibit high tendency to fail in interfacial failure mode. Sizing of spot welds based on the conventional recommendation of 4t0.5 (t is sheet thickness) does not guarantee the pullout failure mode in many cases of AHSS spot welds. Therefore, a new weld quality criterion should be found for AHSS resistance spot welds to guarantee pull-out failure. The aim of this paper is to investigate and analyze the transition between interfacial and pull-out failure modes in AHSS resistance spot welds during the tensile–shear test by the use of analytical approach. In this work, in the light of failure mechanism, a simple analytical model is presented for estimating the critical fusion zone size to prevent interfacial fracture. According to this model, the hardness ratio of fusion zone to pull-out failure location and the volume fraction of voids in fusion zone are the key metallurgical factors governing type of failure mode of AHSS spot welds during the tensile–shear test. Low hardness ratio and high susceptibility to form shrinkage voids in the case of AHSS spot welds appear to be the two primary causes for their high tendency to fail in interfacial mode.