Fused Deposition Modeling Printing Research Articles

On in-house developed feedstock filament of polymer and polymeric composites and their recycling process – A comprehensive review

Abstract In the last few decades, tremendous effort is given to the production of various polymers and polymeric composites components through innovative polymer processing techniques. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) of polymers as a printing technique in additive manufacturing has been explored extensively due to its cost-effectiveness, manufacturing capabilities, flexibility in material selection, and dimensional accuracy. A few reviews of the literature have been done to investigate various applications for polymers, but none have focused on the research on commercial and in-house generated polymers and polymeric composites, particularly those made using the FDM printing technology. Consequently, the study data on the internal development of polymer and polymeric composite filament-based FDM printing is gathered and processed in this work. The work also highlights various types of polymeric composites and recycled polymeric composites with their detailed material characteristics. In addition, various applications of FDM printing of polymeric composites at the industrial scale and domestic level usage are highlighted as the potential to reduce carbon emission through the effective recycling process.

3D printing with a 3D printed digital material filament for programming functional gradients

Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing attracts growing attention as a promising method for creating functionally graded materials. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is widely available, but due to its simple process, creating spatial gradation of diverse properties using FDM is challenging. Here, we present a 3D printed digital material filament that is structured towards 3D printing of functional gradients, utilizing only a readily available FDM printer and filaments. The DM filament consists of multiple base materials combined with specific concentrations and distributions, which are FDM printed. When the DM filament is supplied to the same printer, its constituent materials are homogeneously blended during extrusion, resulting in the desired properties in the final structure. This enables spatial programming of material properties in extreme variations, including mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and color, which are otherwise impossible to achieve with traditional FDMs. Our approach can be readily adopted to any standard FDM printer, enabling low-cost production of functional gradients.

The utilization of three-dimensional imaging and three-dimensional-printed model in autologous microtia reconstruction.

The use of three-dimensional (3D) technology helps surgeons in performing autologous microtia reconstruction due to more accurate measurements and a better precision template model. However, the technical aspects of using a 3D imaging and 3D-printed model and the difference in outcomes postoperatively remain poorly reviewed. This systematic review aimed to provide the current evidence of the benefit and technical aspects of using 3D technology in autologous microtia reconstruction. A systematic literature search was conducted across multiple databases: Medline, Embase, Google Scholar, and Central until June 2022. Studies that evaluated the use of 3D imaging or 3D-printed models for autogenous microtia reconstruction were selected. The quality of the included studies was also assessed with respect to the study design. A systematic literature search yielded 17 articles with a combination of observational and case report studies. Overall, 3D imaging showed a precise measurement for preoperative costal cartilage assessment. Compared to the 2D template, the utilization of a 3D-printed template provided a higher similarity rate relative to the unaffected ear, higher patient and surgeon satisfaction, and lower surgical time. Most 3D templates were fabricated using polylactic acid material on fused deposition modelling printers. The template costs were ranging from $1 to $4.5 depending on the material used. 3D imaging and 3D-printed templates could improve the outcome of autologous microtia reconstruction. However, the quality of the existing evidence remains low due to the heterogeneity of the reported outcomes. Further studies with more adequate comparability and defined outcomes are still required.

Using Own Algorithms to Increase the Quality and Fatigue Resistance of FDM Printing for Use in Drones and Small Aircraft

Abstract The present article discusses the three-dimensional (3D) printing process in the fused deposition modeling (FDM) or the fused filament fabrication (FFF) technique using the author’s own philosophy of shaping the printing head path. The main requirements are the possibility of eliminating supports and reducing or even eliminating the need for the mechanical processing of 3D prints before their final assembly. The presented methodology was implemented in a computer program written by the author and was used to print typical parts used in aviation. Individual methods of shaping parts typical for the construction of small flying models, such as wings and fuselages, and methods of strengthening and connecting them have been discussed. The proposed solutions are illustrated with photos of readymade prints. This article also discusses the issues that printing high-quality parts may encounter and how to avoid them. Some attention has also been paid to the materials used for printing and their suitability in the construction of aircraft and their fatigue strength.

Estimation of friction and wear properties of additively manufactured recycled-ABS parts using artificial neural network approach: effects of layer thickness, infill rate, and building direction

Abstract This investigation aims to elucidate friction and wear features of additively manufactured recycled-ABS components by utilizing neural network algorithms. In that sense, it is the first initiative in the technical literature and brings fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology, recycled filament-based products, and artificial neural network strategies together to estimate the friction coefficient and volume loss outcomes. In the experimental stage, to provide the required data for five different neural algorithms, dry-sliding wear tests, and hardness measurements were conducted. As FDM printing variables, layer thickness (0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 mm), infill rate (40, 70, and 100 %), and building direction (vertical, and horizontal) were selected. The obtained results pointed out that vertically built samples usually had lower wear resistance than the horizontally built samples. This case can be clarified with the initially measured hardness levels of horizontally built samples and optical microscopic analyses. Besides, the Levenberg Marquard (LM) algorithm was the best option to foresee the wear outputs compared to other approaches. Considering all error levels in this paper, the offered results by neural networks are notably acceptable for the real industrial usage of material, mechanical, and manufacturing engineering areas.

Additive Manufacturing of Composite Polymers: Thermomechanical FEA and Experimental Study.

This study presents a comprehensive approach for simulating the additive manufacturing process of semi-crystalline composite polymers using Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). By combining thermomechanical Finite Element Analysis (FEA) with experimental validation, our main objective is to comprehend and model the complex behaviors of 50 wt.% carbon fiber-reinforced Polyphenylene Sulfide (CF PPS) during FDM printing. The simulations of the FDM process encompass various theoretical aspects, including heat transfer, orthotropic thermal properties, thermal dissipation mechanisms, polymer crystallization, anisotropic viscoelasticity, and material shrinkage. We utilize Abaqus user subroutines such as UMATHT for thermal orthotropic constitutive behavior, UEPACTIVATIONVOL for progressive activation of elements, and ORIENT for material orientation. Mechanical behavior is characterized using a Maxwell model for viscoelastic materials, incorporating a dual non-isothermal crystallization kinetics model within the UMAT subroutine. Our approach is validated by comparing nodal temperature distributions obtained from both the Abaqus built-in AM Modeler and our user subroutines, showing close agreement and demonstrating the effectiveness of our simulation methods. Experimental verification further confirms the accuracy of our simulation techniques. The mechanical analysis investigates residual stresses and distortions, with particular emphasis on the critical transverse in-plane stress component. This study offers valuable insights into accurately simulating thermomechanical behaviors in additive manufacturing of composite polymers.

Using extrusion-based 3D printing technology to investigate the impact of changing print conditions on tensile characteristics

PurposeThe purpose of this study, most recent advancements in threedimensional (3D) printing have focused on the fabrication of components. It is typical to use different print settings, such as raster angle, infill and orientation to improve the 3D component qualities while fabricating the sample using a 3D printer. However, the influence of these factors on the characteristics of the 3D parts has not been well explored. Owing to the effect of the different print parameters in fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology, it is necessary to evaluate the strength of the parts manufactured using 3D printing technology.Design/methodology/approachIn this study, the effect of three print parameters − raster angle, build orientation and infill − on the tensile characteristics of 3D-printed components made of three distinct materials − acrylonitrile styrene acrylate (ASA), polycarbonate ABS (PC-ABS) and ULTEM-9085 − was investigated. A variety of test items were created using a commercially accessible 3D printer in various configurations, including raster angle (0°, 45°), (0°, 90°), (45°, −45°), (45°, 90°), infill density (solid, sparse, sparse double dense) and orientation (flat, on-edge).FindingsThe outcome shows that variations in tensile strength and force are brought on by the effects of various printing conditions. In all possible combinations of the print settings, ULTEM 9085 material has a higher tensile strength than ASA and PC-ABS materials. ULTEM 9085 material’s on-edge orientation, sparse infill, and raster angle of (0°, −45°) resulted in the greatest overall tensile strength of 73.72 MPa. The highest load-bearing strength of ULTEM material was attained with the same procedure, measuring at 2,932 N. The tensile strength of the materials is higher in the on-edge orientation than in the flat orientation. The tensile strength of all three materials is highest for solid infill with a flat orientation and a raster angle of (45°, −45°). All three materials show higher tensile strength with a raster angle of (45°, −45°) compared to other angles. The sparse double-dense material promotes stronger tensile properties than sparse infill. Thus, the strength of additive components is influenced by the combination of selected print parameters. As a result, these factors interact with one another to produce a high-quality product.Originality/valueThe outcomes of this study can serve as a reference point for researchers, manufacturers and users of 3D-printed polymer material (PC-ABS, ASA, ULTEM 9085) components seeking to optimize FDM printing parameters for tensile strength and/or identify materials suitable for intended tensile characteristics.

Interrelations between Printing Patterns and Residual Stress in Fused Deposition Modelling for the 4D Printing of Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene and Wood–Plastic Composites

Four dimensional printing enables the advanced manufacturing of smart objects that can morph and adapt shape over time in response to stimuli such as heat. This study presents a single-material 4D printing workflow which explores the residual stress and anisotropy arising from the fused deposition modelling (FDM) printing process to create heat-triggered self-morphing objects. In particular, the study first investigates the effect of printing patterns on the residual stress of FDM-printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) products. Through finite element analysis, the raster angle of printing patterns was identified as the key parameter influencing the distribution of residual stresses. Experimental investigations further reveal that the non-uniform distribution of residual stress results in the anisotropic thermal deformation of printed materials. Thus, through the design of printing patterns, FDM-printed materials can be programmed with desired built-in residual stresses and anisotropic behaviours for initiating and controlling the transformation of 4D-printed objects. Using the proposed approach, any desktop FDM printers can be turned into 4D printers to create smart objects that can self-morph into target geometries. A series of 4D printing prototypes manufactured from conventional ABS 3D printing feedstock are tested to illustrate the use and reliability of this new workflow. Additionally, the custom-made wood–plastic composite (WPC) feedstocks are explored in this study to demonstrate the transposability of the 4D printing approach.

Optimization of FDM printing parameters for square lattice structures: Improving mechanical characteristics

Integrating lattice structures into the design of products manufactured using Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) can enhance the weight and strength ratio of printed models. In this research, the square lattice structure widely employed planar lattice structure is implemented, and Polylactic Acid (PLA) filament is utilized as the feedstock material for FDM printing due to its favorable properties, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, controlled degradation, sterilization, and mechanical characteristics. The Taguchi optimization technique is utilized to optimize the printing parameters for the square lattice structure. Design of experiment is developed based on the factors that have the most significant impact on the 3D printed product, which they determine through a literature survey of similar work. L9 orthogonal array is utilized from the design of experiments, with the requirement of three factors and three levels each: layer height (0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 mm), printing temperature (190, 200, and 210 °C), and printing speed (50, 75, and 100 mm/s). This research aims to optimize FDM printing parameters for the square lattice structure, focusing on enhancing the weight and strength ratio of printed samples with the help of S/N ratio and ANOVA. The optimal combination of design factors includes a smaller layer height of 0.1 mm, a printing temperature of 190 °C, and a printing speed of 100 mm/s shows improvement of 25.4 % of tensile strength. The research improves productivity and material utilization and holds relevance in automobile and medical applications. The advancements achieved through this research can benefit industries that require exceptionally lightweight and durable products.

Melt Electrowriting Combined with Fused Deposition Modeling Printing for the Fabrication of Three-Dimensional Biomimetic Scaffolds for Osteotendinous Junction Regeneration.

This study aims to explore a novel scaffold for osteotendinous junction regeneration and to preliminarily verify its osteogenic and tenogenic abilities in vitro. A polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffold with aligned and orthogonal fibers was created using melt electrowriting (MEW) and fused deposition modeling (FDM). The scaffold was coated with Type I collagen, and hydroxyapatite was carefully added to separate the regions intended for bone and tendon regeneration, before being rolled into a cylindrical shape. Human adipose-derived stem cells (hADSCs) were seeded to evaluate viability and differentiation. Scaffold characterization was performed with Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Osteogenesis was assessed by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and Alizarin red staining, while immunostaining and transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) evaluated osteogenic and tendogenic markers. Scaffolds were developed in four variations: aligned (A), collagen-coated aligned (A+C), orthogonal (O), and mineral-coated orthogonal (O+M). SEM analysis confirmed surface morphology and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) verified mineral coating on O+M types. Hydrophilicity and mechanical properties were optimized in modified scaffolds, with A+C showing increased tensile strength and O+M improved in compression. hADSCs demonstrated good viability and morphology across scaffolds, withO+M scaffolds showing higher cell proliferation and osteogenic potential, and A and A+C scaffolds supporting tenogenic differentiation. This study confirms the potential of a novel PCL scaffold with distinct regions for osteogenic and tenogenic differentiation, supporting the regeneration of osteotendinous junctions in vitro.

Exploring bending behavior of curved sandwich panels with three-dimensional printed, functionally graded cores

Sandwich structures have garnered significant attention due to their high strength-to-weight ratio in various industries, particularly aerospace. Meeting application demands requires optimizing mechanical properties such as bending stiffness, peak load, specific absorbed energy, and weight. This study presents a unique approach involving the design and manufacturing techniques of curved sandwich panels with functionally graded cores, aiming to achieve a comprehensive spectrum of bending properties. Curved structures have applications across diverse fields, including landing gear. The semi-circular core of the sandwich panel comprised three distinct regions defined by angles: Ф, Υ, and 90-Ф- Υ. These angles specified both the location and proportion of different honeycomb cells, including high, medium, and low-density cells. Any variations in these angles and their cell types resulted in a new density gradient. The manufactured sandwich structures consisted of polylactic acid cores printed by a fused deposition modeling printer, sandwiched between aluminum skins. Experimental tests and finite element analysis for three models showed strong agreement, with a maximum error of 14.45%. After the simulation was validated, it expanded to cover other configurations. Subsequently, mathematical models based on the aforementioned angles were calibrated using results extracted from the simulation step. This process led to achieving various structures characterized by a wide range of stiffness (ranging from 0.29 to 0.79 kN/mm), peak load (ranging from 1.73 to 4.77 kN), and specific absorbed energy values (ranging from 41.78 to 96.09 J/kg). The proposed methodology exhibits promise in engineering the design of these structures and their multi-objective optimization.

Integrated free-standing WS2 3D-printed carbon supercapacitor with solid state electrolyte

ABSTRACT There is a huge need for energy storage devices due to the depletion of natural gas and the increasing requirement for portable electronic gadgets. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D-printing has drawn tremendous interest for the fabrication of batteries and supercapacitors (SCs) due to its tabletop manufacturing technique, bespoke design, fast prototyping and user-friendly process. However, there are fewer available conductive filaments for FDM printing that are ideal from an energy storage standpoint. 2D transition metal dichalcogenide WS2 has been discovered to be a favourable material for electrochemical energy storage. As a result, in this work, we modified a carbon electrode that was 3D-printed by incorporating WS2 in order to enhance the capacitive performance of the SC electrode. The WS2-coated 3D-printed carbon electrode (WS2/3D-PCE) exhibits 2.8 times higher specific capacitance than the 3D-printed carbon electrode at 50 mV s−1. A solid-state symmetric supercapacitor (SS-SC) was fabricated with WS2/3D-PCE and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/Li2SO4 as gel electrolytes. Such modified 3D-PCE opens up the opportunities to design any custom-shaped electrode with tailored properties and pave a route for future research that will lead to more electrochemical devices for portable electronics.

Parametric analysis of additively manufactured polymer nanocomposites: A experimental and multiscale study

Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) or Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a widely utilized additive manufacturing technology in a variety of sectors. However, voids, poor bonding between layers, and FDM parameters commonly affect the FDM-printed objects, altering their strength. Carbon nanotube (CNT) composites for FDM printing have been researched by researchers to improve their characteristics. This paper proposes an efficient three-scale computational model for predicting mechanical properties as well as a unique water-quenching process for preparing CNT-infused filaments. The influence of FDM process parameters on mechanical properties is revealed by extensive parametric analysis. When compared to pure ABS, the CNT-infused composite demonstrated better bonding and modulus. The experimental study showed that an increase in the layer height deteriorates the elastic modulus by 21.03 % and 27.92 %, for ABS and ABS-CNT, respectively. The infill density increases the modulus by 49.3 % and 69.6 % for pure ABS, from 100 % to 75 % and 50 %, respectively. For parts printed in 0–00 and 0–900 orientations, a 2.11 % and a 1.7 % decrease were found for pure ABS and nanocomposite, respectively. The computational results were in good agreement with the experimental findings, with the difference varying from 10.15 % to 5.5 % for 0.1 mm and 0.2 mm layer heights. For other parameters like the raster orientation, the difference for 0–00 and 0–900 was 5.3 % and 6.9 %, respectively. The computational results agree with the experimental results, making it a useful tool for optimizing FDM printing and exploiting CNTs to improve part performance.

Effective, versatile and inexpensive extruder system for direct ink writing of high-viscosity pastes

We offer the possibility of implementing a lab-made extruder for direct ink writing (DIW) into a conventional fused deposition modelling (FDM) 3D printer. The ink extruder was designed to comply with various requirements including the possibility of using multiple syringe volumes, ease of assembly, compatibility with numerous commercial FDM printers, ink retraction and ink flow control and the ability to extrude inks with a wide range of viscosities (ink yield stresses from 135 to 1100 Pa). The load in the extruder was attained by combining a stepper motor and a gear reduction system. The reduction system was connected to a trapezoidal threaded spindle through a rigid coupler. The movement of the spindle was transmitted to the plunger of a syringe that contained the ink (with volumes ranging from 3 to 30 mL), by means of a linear guide system. Most of the extruder parts were printed with the same FDM printer to which the DIW extruder ended attached to. The DIW extruder wiring connections were simply made by using the E-axis connectors available in the FDM printer. Modifications of the FDM printer software required for the correct control of the DIW extruder were also relatively simple, avoiding firmware modification. This simplicity made the two DIW and FDM heads easily interchangeable, thus amplifying the functionality of a conventional FDM printer. The cost of this new DIW extruder is approx. 100€.

The Development of Sustainable Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol-Based (PETG) Blends for Additive Manufacturing Processing-The Use of Multilayered Foil Waste as the Blend Component.

The polymer foil industry is one of the leading producers of plastic waste. The development of new recycling methods for packaging products is one of the biggest demands in today's engineering. The subject of this research was the melt processing of multilayered PET-based foil waste with PETG copolymer. The resulting blends were intended for additive manufacturing processing using the fused deposition modeling (FDM) method. In order to improve the properties of the developed materials, the blends compounding procedure was conducted with the addition of a reactive chain extender (CE) and elastomeric copolymer used as an impact modifier (IM). The samples were manufactured using the 3D printing technique and, for comparison, using the traditional injection molding method. The obtained samples were subjected to a detailed characterization procedure, including mechanical performance evaluation, thermal analysis, and rheological measurements. This research confirms that PET-based film waste can be successfully used for the production of filament, and for most samples, the FDM printing process can be conducted without any difficulties. Unfortunately, the unmodified blends are characterized by brittleness, which makes it necessary to use an elastomer additive (IM). The presence of a semicrystalline PET phase improves the thermal resistance of the prepared blends; however, an annealing procedure is required for this purpose.

Multi-material additive manufacturing via fused deposition modeling 3D printing: A systematic review on the material feeding mechanism

The rapid advancements in fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing methods have unlocked new opportunities in multi-material additive manufacturing (AM). This technique offers a viable solution for creating high-performance, multi-functional graded materials, parts, and tooling. Despite the extensive efforts invested in exploring the potential of the FDM-type multi-material additive approach, there is a noticeable lack of discussion specifically centered around the material feeding mechanism of this extrusion-based 3D printing method. This work provides a systematic review on the current studies related to the multi-material FDM 3D printing. It is found that the interlayer adhesion quality of different feedstock materials is a first and foremost feature in determining the strength of the entire print. To this end, we particularly focus on analyzing the feeding system of multiple materials and the strategy for material alternation. From our analytical evaluations, it is noticed that the single-nozzle/multi-feed and multi-nozzle/multi-feed FDM printers present unique pros. and cons., respectively. Inspired by multi-material applications of direct ink writing extrusion-based 3D printing, we also suggest to choose a suitable method based on the material rheology and thermal properties of the constituent materials. This can be a chance to gain further benefits from the multi-material AM.

Pore parameter selection for fused deposition modeling of gas diffusion layers in proton exchange membrane fuel cells

AbstractBecause of the global energy crisis, many researchers have focused their efforts on fuel cells. The gas diffusion layer (GDL) is a fundamental component of proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells. The manufacturing procedures for traditional carbon‐based GDLs are sophisticated and energy‐intensive, and have design flexibility constraints, making it difficult to build complicated forms and structures. Additive manufacturing is widely used in a variety of fields, with the fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique being the most popular method. Prior to conducting systematic research on the printed GDLs, it is necessary to investigate the pore parameters with the support of FDM technique. In this research, the initial step involves material selection, FDM printer selection, and modeling. Subsequently, printing analysis and sample characterization are conducted to select an acceptable pore shape. A water drainage test determines the appropriate pore size, followed by additional tests for acceptable porosity range. The square pore shape is determined to be more suitable. A pore side length of 1.0 mm is identified. Furthermore, a suitable pore range of 10.9%–30.3% is identified. Next step, the printed GDLs will undergo further testing to investigate their suitability to be used in PEM fuel cells.

Biomimetic mineralization of 3D-printed polyhydroxyalkanoate-based microbial scaffolds for bone tissue engineering

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) have gained much attention as a potential alternative to conventional plastic bone scaffolds due to their biocompatibility and biodegradability, among a diverse range of advantageous properties. However, the water resistance of PHA creates an environment that can interfere with cell interactions. In this study, a three-dimensional-printed PHA scaffold was fabricated through fused deposition modeling printing considering the physical properties of PHA. The PHA bone scaffolds were then coated with polydopamine (pDA) and/or hydroxyapatite (HA) in various configurations using a relatively simple and rapid process involving only immersion. The PHA–pDA– HA scaffold showed enhanced cell viability, proliferation, and differentiation, and could thus serve as a versatile platform for bone tissue engineering applications.

Artificial intelligence generates novel 3D printing formulations

Formulation development is a critical step in the development of medicines. The process requires human creativity, ingenuity and in-depth knowledge of formulation development and processing optimization, which can be time-consuming. Herein, we tested the ability of artificial intelligence (AI) to create de novo formulations for three-dimensional (3D) printing. Specifically, conditional generative adversarial networks (cGANs), which are generative models known for their creativity, were trained on a dataset consisting of 1437 fused deposition modelling (FDM) printed formulations that were extracted from both the literature and in-house data. In total, 27 different cGANs architectures were explored with varying learning rate, batch size and number of hidden layers parameters to generate 270 formulations. After a comparison between the characteristics of AI-generated and human-generated formulations, it was discovered that cGANs with a medium learning rate (10−4) could strike a balance in generating formulations that are both novel and realistic. Four of these formulations were fabricated using an FDM printer, of which the first AI-generated formulation was successfully printed. Our study represents a milestone, highlighting the capacity of AI to undertake creative tasks and its potential to revolutionize the drug development process.

Unconventional use of FDM printing method for testing the delamination of PVA material for different layer height

The necessity to alter the material used for producing specific components has arisen in tandem with technological advancements, specifically in the realm of additive manufacturing. The aim is to enhance both the physical and mechanical attributes of these objects. The newly envisaged materials are anticipated to confer increased durability, resilience, and in some cases, elasticity, thus extending the lifespan and bolstering their utility. Furthermore, environmental considerations dictate that these innovative materials should be amenable to recycling. The ultimate objective of this study is to establish a foundational set of optimal parameters for 3D printing with PVA material. This research will unveil the outcomes of material tensile strength in samples produced using the Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) technique, with variations in layer height. The focal point of this investigation is PVA material, which will subsequently be augmented with particles of biological origin to create a novel polymer with broader applicability and improved mechanical properties, following future tests.