Further Increase In Energy Research Articles

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF HYDROSTATIC TRANSMISSION TYPE GST-90

As you know, one of the areas of development of modern agricultural machinery is to expand their functionality, increase capacity and productivity. The solution to this problem is possible through the use of powerful small-sized drives - namely hydraulic drives. These properties of the drive of this type have become crucial for its widespread use in agricultural machinery. Today, the hydraulic drive is used to drive the working bodies of machines, and as the drive of the main movement of self-propelled agricultural machines. The main hydraulic unit that drives a self-propelled agricultural machine is a hydrostatic transmission. Significant competition in the market of self-propelled agricultural machinery has led to an increase in the level of technical requirements for both agricultural machinery in general and hydrostatic transmissions operating in their composition. At the same time, further increase of energy saving and economic efficiency becomes especially important. The solution of the set tasks is greatly facilitated by further hydrofication of the drives and working bodies of agricultural machines. The most successful solution to this problem is the use of a hydrostatic drive, a typical representative of which are hydrostatic transmissions such as GST-90. The analysis of theoretical researches is carried out, the design of the stand for carrying out experimental researches for the purpose of confirmation of results of mathematical modeling is offered. Measuring and recording equipment for conducting a physical experiment is described. The coincidence of the results of experimental studies of hydrostatic transmissions with the results of computer simulation based on the developed mathematical model confirms its adequacy and correctness of the assumptions. Due to this, it is possible to recommend using the results of mathematical modeling in the design of new designs of hydrostatic transmissions.

Specificity of separate dispersed phase particles from flue gas flows by perfo-rated filter barrier

The vector of industrial development at the present stage is associated with a further increase in energy needs, which is associated with the modernization of existing and the development of new energy-efficient generating equipment. A significant share in the energy balance is still occupied by power plants that use fuel combustion and have significant environmental costs. The results of a theoretical and experimental study of the mechanisms of trapping flue gas particles of power plants by perforated filter baffles in order to reduce the load of emissions on the atmosphere are presented. Formulas for calculating the trapping coefficient under the action of various particle trapping mechanisms are systematized and proposed. The dominant role of the inertial trapping mechanism (?Stk) at the beginning of the filtration process and the gearing effect (?R) in the subsequent stage is determined. The issues of formation of the sediment layer require taking into account the adhesive properties of materials (parameter T) and the introduction of an effective Stokes coefficient (Stkeff). A special role is noted for increasing the efficiency of deposition of flue gas particles under the action of an electrostatic field (?E). In the future, the obtained research results can be used in the development and design of combined gas cleaning devices using the combined action of filtration and the action of an electrostatic field.

Investigation of γ-ray attenuation coefficients, effective atomic number and electron density for ZnO/HDPE composite

Bulk and nano ZnO/HDPE composite with different weight fractions (10, 20, 30 and 40%) of ZnO as a filler were prepared and studied for radiation shielding properties against γ-ray. The structural, morphological and functional properties of the composites were identified using x-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared specrtroscopy (FTIR). The results confirmed the formation of ZnO nanoparticles with crystallite size of 27 nm and revealed their good dispersion within the polymer matrix compared to bulk ZnO as well as interaction mechanism between the filler and the polymer matrix. The mass attenuation coefficient (μm) for the composite was measured experimentally using a well calibrated high purity germanium cylindrical detector (HPGe) at energies (59.54, 356.01, 661.66, 1173.33 and 1332.50 keV) for different radioactive point sources (241Am, 133Ba, 137Cs and 60Co). The obtained attenuation coefficients were used to determine the values of total molecular cross section σmol, the total atomic cross section σatm (cm2/atom), total electronic cross-section σel (cm2/electron) effective atomic number Zeff, and effective electron number Neff. Using NIST XCOM photon cross section database, the theoretical radiation parameters were calculated for bulk ZnO/HDPE composite and compared with the experimental results of both bulk and nano ZnO/HDPE composite. The obtained results revealed good agreement compared to theoretical values. μm, σmol, and σatm values decreased with incident photon energy and increased with weight percentage of both bulk and nano ZnO filler. However, these values were greater for nano ZnO/HDPE composite compared to bulk ZnO/HDPE composite with the same weight percentage. Whereas, σel, Zeff and Neff values decreased with weight percentage and revealed a plateau region which appeared with further increase in energy.

Research on the effect of diesel fuel injection parameters on the exhaust emissions in the turbocharged CI engine operating on propane

The article presents results of the studies on the charged, dual-fuel CI compression ignition engine fuelled with propane. The main goal of the studies was to fuel the engine so that the amount of energy provided with propane is possibly highest at the high efficiency, low emission of harmful exhaust constituents and proper combustion. As the studies conducted so far have shown, with the increase of energy from propane we observe crucial changes in the combustion process. As these changes may be a barrier in the further increase of energy, we decided to change the injection parameters of the diesel fuel. The changes introduced allowed for the 70% energetic contribution of gas fuel at the subsequent elimination of unfavourable phenomena. The fuel injection was realized divided into two doses. Both proportions and angle at the beginning of the injection for both doses were variable. The angle at the beginning of injection for the first dose was changed in a wide range and depended on the value of charging pressure. The angle at the beginning of injection for the second dose was changed in a much narrower range, mainly due to very clear changes in the nature of combustion process. The studies have been conducted for three values of charging pressure, namely 200; 400 and 600 [mbar], and also for the naturally aspirated version. Study results have been presented in a form of regulation characteristics for the angle of the beginning of injection of the pilot dose for the chosen charging variants, as well as volume and angle of the beginning of injection for the main dose. The obtained results show that the content of exhaust constituents for the dual-fuel CI engine depends highly on assumed regulations of injection parameters of the fuel dose initiating the ignition, as well as engine charging pressure.

Ultrasonic spot welded 6111-T4 aluminum alloy to galvanized high-strength low-alloy steel: Microstructure and mechanical properties

Multi-material design of automotive structures for lightweighting solutions inevitably involves dissimilar joining of lightweight aluminum alloys with steels. Solid-state ultrasonic spot welding (USW) has recently received significant attention due to its high energy efficiency in comparison with conventional fusion welding techniques. In this study USW technique was used to join Al alloy 6111-T4 to galvanized high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel at different welding energy levels. During USW rapid interdiffusion of Zn and Al resulted in the formation of Al-Zn eutectoid/eutectic interface layer due to fast temperature rise and high strain rate. Part of this diffusion layer was squeezed out around the nugget edge in higher welding energy conditions, creating an additional brazing effect. The tensile lap shear load increased with increasing welding energy, reached a peak value, then decreased with a further increase in energy. Two major types of failure mode, namely interfacial failure and transverse-through-thickness (TTT) failure, were observed during tensile lap shear tests. The samples welded at 2000J exhibited a longer fatigue life than those welded at a welding energy of 1000J. During fatigue interfacial failure occurred at higher cyclic load levels, while TTT failure happened at lower cyclic load levels.

Disintegration of Sludge by Sonication and Improvement of Methane Production Rates in Batch Anaerobic Digesters

AbstractSludge pretreatment prior to anaerobic digestion has been found to reduce sludge production in wastewater treatment. Sludge disintegration using physical, chemical, biological, or mechanical methods can increase biogas production and reduce sludge quantities. Ultrasonication is one of the most effective means of mechanical disintegration. This study aims to investigate ultrasonication as a means for solubilizing waste activated sludge (WAS) to enhance its digestability. Sonication was applied by the use of two different probes providing different powers and energies into the sludge after which the soluble chemical oxygen demand (sCOD) increases were measured. The samples were then digested anaerobically in 250 mL serum bottles for about 50 days. Along with the biogas measurements, the rate of methane production is calculated to be able to quantify the effect of pretreatment and compare the results between different applications. The results showed that with the increase of sonication power and sonication time, sCOD increased. An introduction of higher sonication energy made the sCOD rise sharply, however, this increase was not indefinite; it became gradually lower with the further increase of energy. The results indicated that specific methane production, specific methane yield, and the first order methane generation rate increased with increasing energy input.

Modulation of Signal-Transducing Function of Neuronal Membrane Na+,K by Endogenous Ouabain and Low-Power Infrared Radiation Leads to Pain Relief

Effects of infrared (IR) radiation generated by a low-power Co2-laser on sensory neurons of chick embryos were investigated by organotypic culture method. Low-power IR radiation firstly results in marked neurite suppressing action, probably induced by activation of Na+,K+-ATPase signal-transducing function. A further increase in energy of radiation leads to stimulation of neurite growth. We suggest that this effect is triggered by activation of Na+,K+-ATPase pumping function. Involvement of Na+,K+-ATPase in the control of the transduction process was proved by results obtained after application of ouabain at very low concentrations. Physiological significance of low-power IR radiation and effects of ouabain at nanomolar level was investigated in behavioral experiments (formalin test). It is shown that inflammatory pain induced by injection of formalin is relieved both due to ouabain action and after IR irradiation.

Radiation-induced cation disorder in the spinel MgAl 2O 4

There is some controversy in the literature concerning the nature of radiation-induced cation disorder and phase transformation in the spinel MgAl 2O 4. Attempts have been made to interpret the experimental data either in terms of a pure inversion involving the exchange between the Mg and Al atoms, or the disordering of the cation sublattice leading to a change in crystallographic symmetry to a defective NaCl-type lattice. We have performed first principles electronic structure calculations in order to examine the nature of this cationic disorder. We find that at low energies an exchange between the Mg and Al atoms is more favourable leading to an inversion in the spinel. With further increase in energy, the cations can be displaced from the tetrahedral sites to the unoccupied octahedral sites in the lattice, both in the normal and inverse spinels. In the case of the inverse spinel, such a displacement leads to a spontaneous change in the value of the u parameter of the oxygen lattice to the ideal value, and thus to an ideal defective NaCl-type lattice. On the other hand, in the case of a normal spinel, the displacement of Mg atoms to the unoccupied octahedral sites leads initially to a pseudo-cubic arrangement which then transforms later with further energy to an ideal defective NaCl-type structure. Thus in both cases a defective NaCl-type structure is obtained as the final structure. We find that the total energy barrier for obtaining this structure is the same in both cases.

Dicentric chromosomes in monolayers of human lymphocytes produced by monochromatized synchrotron radiation with photon energies from 1.83 keV to 17.4 keV.

A systematic approach was used to examine the induction of dicentric chromosomes in human lymphocytes irradiated in vitro with monochromatized synchrotron radiation produced with photon energies in the range from 1.83 keV to 17.4 keV. To avoid potential confounding factors that could influence the outcome of the experiments, only blood from one individual was used. Since for the irradiation experiments with these low photon energies the local dose variations would become unacceptable, monolayers of lymphocytes attached within 3 h PHA stimulation have been used. The culture conditions ensured that the chromosome analysis could be performed exclusively in metaphases of the first cell cycle in vitro. There is a strong indication for a systematic change of the alpha coefficient of the linear quadratic dose-response relationship from 1.83 keV (alpha=1.26+/-0.28) with increasing energy up to 6.9 keV (alpha=8.24+/-0.41) and a decrease with further increase of energy up to 17.4 keV (alpha=3.83+/-1.72). A tendency for a systematic change of the beta coefficient seems to be present at energies of 6.9 keV (beta=8.04+/-0.40) and 4.8 keV (beta=9.48+/-1.57) as well as at energies of 3.10 keV (beta=2.99+/-0.51) and 1.83 keV (beta=0.40+/-0.25). These results agree in essence with the previously published large data set from Sasaki's laboratory.

Contribution of Kinetic and Potential Emission to keV Singly Charged Ion-Induced Electron Emission from a Metal Surface

A Monte Carlo simulation model of kinetic emission (KE) of electrons from a gold surface due to impact of He+ and Ar+ ions is combined with a model of potential emission (PE) due to the Auger neutralization of the projectile ions. The emphasis is placed on the energy distribution and emission statistics of electrons, as well as the total electron yield, in the keV impact energy range where KE and PE contribute with comparable importance to the electron yield. At low impact energies, PE dominates the electron yield, which decreases (increases) with increasing energy of He+ ( Ar+) ions. With the onset of KE, the electron yield due to He+ impact begins to increase, and with further increase in energy, KE dominates the electron yield. This causes large changes in the peak energy and the shape of the energy distribution of emitted electrons. For He+ impact, the calculated emission statistics deviate from the observed statistics, whereas for Ar+ impact, a reasonable agreement between them is obtained.

Magnet energy storage

The authors give a brief review of magnet energy storage (MES) development in the (USSR) and outline the status in the following areas: supporting theoretical studies, commutation equipment, superconducting materials, and development of conventional, cryoresistive, and superconducting MES. Conventional and cryoresistive MES units for stored energy up to 900 MJ, discharge currents up to 6 MA, pulse duration of 0.1-10 ms, and generated power of 10/sup 10/-10/sup 12/ W have been constructed and used for research in the USSR. If a further increase in energy and in power amplification factor is requested, the application of superconducting MES will be necessary to reduce the requirements of charging power. Pilot pulse superconducting MES systems with an energy of several MJ have been developed and tested in USSR laboratories. The prospects of the application of superconducting MES in utility systems are examined. >

Energy dependence of the effective atomic number of alloys

To investigate the variation of effective atomic number ( Z eff) of alloys with photon energy, the Z eff of eight different alloys (tungsten steel, monel metal, solder, bell metal, bronze aluminium, bronze ordinary, platinum-rhodium-I and platinum-rhodium-II) have been studied for the total and partial photon interaction processes over a wide energy range from 10 keV to 100 GeV using a recent theoretical compilation by Berger and Hubbell (1987). For the total photon interaction, in all the alloys Z eff initially increases to the maximum value with increase in energy and then decreases to the minimum value with further increase in energy, after which Z eff again starts increasing with further increase in energy. The maximum and minimum value of Z eff is at different energies for different alloys depending upon the relative proportion and the range of atomic numbers of constituent elements of the alloy. For photo-electric absorption, Z eff increases in the low energy region and becomes independent of energy, whereas in Compton scattering, except below 200 keV, Z eff is constant up to 100 MeV. In the case of pair production, Z eff decreases with the increase in energy up to 10–12 MeV, after which it is noted to be independent of photon energy.

Electrical conductivity of carbon black filled ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer as a function of vinyl acetate content

The electrical conductivity of carbon black filled ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer was measured as a function of carbon and vinyl acetate (VAc) content. For the composites whose matrices contain less than 32 wt% ofVAc content, a sharp break point of the relation between carbon content and conductivity was observed. The conductivity jumps as much as ten orders of magnitude at the break point. The critical carbon content corresponding to the break point can essentially be predicted by our previous model. This model was derived under certain assumptions, the most important of which is that when the interfacial excess energy introduced by carbon particles into the polymer matrix reaches a “universal value”,Δg*, the carbon particles begin to coagulate so as to avoid any further increase of energy and to form networks which facilitate electrical conduction. On the other hand, for the composites whose matrices contain more than 32 wt% ofVAc content, a sharp break of the relation between the carbon content and conductivity cannot be observed and conductivity increases continuously with increasingVAc content. In this region ofVAc content, carbon particles were dispersed well in theVAc rich matrices. This is because the presence of polar groups in aVAc component enhances its bonding to conductive fillers. In this case, the interfacial excess energy,Δg, seems to be the caseΔg≤0. Better dispersibility of fillers in this region ofVAc content can be shown from an electron micrograph (TEM).

Effects of sex and energy intake between 48 and 90 kg live weight on protein deposition in growing pigs

ABSTRACTTwenty four entire male and 24 female pigs growing from 48 to 90 kg live weight were used to investigate the effects of five rates of food intake supplying daily between 23 MJ digestible energy (DE) and 41·8 or 39·2 MJ DE for entire males and females respectively, on rate of protein deposition, and on growth and body composition.Entire males deposited protein faster than females, and for both sexes the rate of protein deposition increased linearly with increase in energy intake up to 33 MJ DE per day (P < 0·001) but was not significantly affected by further increase in energy intake.Average daily gain increased quadratically (P < 0·001) with increase in energy intake and at all levels was higher for entire males than for females. Food:gain ratio (g food per g growth) which was lower for entire males improved with increase in energy intake up to 33 MJ DE per day and deteriorated with further increase in energy intake.At 90 kg live weight entire males contained less fat and more protein and water in the empty body than females. For both sexes, body fat content increased at a decreasing rate with increase in energy intake up to 33 MJ DE per day, and at an increasing rate with further increase in energy intake.Total energy retained was linearly (P < 0·001) related to energy intake and at all rates of energy intake was higher for females than for entire males. The estimates of DE required for maintenance were 15·9 MJ/day (0·664 MJ/kg M0·75 per day) and 12·4 MJ/day (0·51 MJ/kg M0·75 per day) for entire males and females, respectively.

Study on Measurement of Carrier Effective Lifetime in Furnace and Laser Annealed Diodes

A new and simple method by which it is possible to separate the bulk generation-recombination current from the externally flowing edge leakage current of ion implanted p-n mesa diodes is introduced. Using this method, the value of the carrier lifetime as well as its profile along the depth is determined. Having demonstrated the effectiveness of this new method for furnace annealed samples, investigations were then carried out for laser annealed ones. It was observed from the results obtained from laser annealed (Q-switched, Ruby) diodes that the lifetime does not vary with depth at energies greater than 1.6 J/cm2. In this energy region, the lifetime becomes longer as the energy is increased reaching an optimum at 2.05 J/cm2, after which a further increase in energy causes a sudden shortening of the lifetime.

Double Excitation of Helium by Electron Impact

This study is devoted to the theory and calculation of cross sections for the electron-impact excitation of doubly-excited states in helium which are stable to autoionization. The cross sections are found to exhibit sharp peaks just above the threshold energies for excitation and to decrease rapidly with further increase of energy. The maximum value of the Born-Oppenheimer cross section for excitation of the ${(2p)}^{2}^{3}P_{g}$ state is about $6\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}{10}^{\ensuremath{-}4} {({a}_{o})}^{2}$ and occurs at approximately 11 eV above threshold. The cross sections for excitation of the $2p3p^{1}P_{g}$, $2p3d^{3}D_{u}$, and $2p3d^{1}D_{u}$ states are all less than 35 b. The cross section for the ${(2p)}^{2}^{3}P_{g}$ state has been calculated according to the Born-Oppenheimer, distorted-wave, and two-state strong-coupling approximations. In all of these cases the maximum amplitude of the scattered beam occurs at right angles to the direction of the incident electrons. The cross sections of the potential-and-exchange-distortion method (DEW) and of the complete two-state strong-coupling approximation are virtually identical. The Born-Oppenheimer approximation produces remarkably similar results. Rigorous upper bounds to the energies of the $2p3p^{1}P_{g}$, $2p3d^{3}D_{u}$, and $2p3d^{1}D_{u}$ states of helium are reported. Finally, the cross sections are calculated in Born-Oppenheimer approximation for electron-impact excitation of the ${(1s)}^{2}{(2p)}^{2}^{3}P_{g}$ and ${(1s)}^{2}2p3p^{3}P_{g}$ states of beryllium. The peak values of these cross sections are $12 {({a}_{o})}^{2}$ and $2{({a}_{o})}^{2}$, respectively.

On the distribution of transverse momenta and its connection with elastic scattering at high energies

Assuming that the scattering amplitude in the forward direction is pure imaginary and the distribution of transverse momenta of the scattered particles is independent of incident energy, a simple relation between the elastic cross section, the total cross section, and average transverse momenta that is valid at all high energies is obtained. This relation is in agreement with results on p-p and pi -p scattering. The differential scattering cross section, obtained on the basis of these assumptions, shows an initial shrinkage of the diffraction peak with energy up to a few Bev, but with further increase of energy the rate of shrinkage drops, and finally the width of the diffraction peak becomes independent of energy. (C. E.S.)

Nuclear Excitation Functions. I.Na23(d,p)Na24,Br81(d,p)Br82, andBr(d,2n)Kr(34 hr.)

Excitation functions for production of the radioactive isotopes ${\mathrm{Na}}^{24}$ (14.8 hr.), ${\mathrm{Br}}^{82}$ (34 hr.), and Kr (34 hr.) were obtained by bombardment of a stack of NaBr films obtained by evaporation in high vacuum onto aluminum foil. Deuteron energy determinations were made by measurement of range in aluminum; the maximum deuteron energy used in these experiments was 13.5 Mev. The activities of each isotope were measured on a calibrated gamma-ray counter which yielded three excitation curves and the absolute disintegration rates for the ${\mathrm{Na}}^{24}$ and the ${\mathrm{Br}}^{82}$ whose disintegration schemes are known. The reaction ${\mathrm{Br}}^{81}(d,p){\mathrm{Br}}^{82}$ exhibits an excitation function which begins at about 3 Mev, rises to a maximum absolute cross section of 3.8\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}${10}^{\ensuremath{-}25}$ ${\mathrm{cm}}^{2}$ at 8.5 Mev, and decreases with further increase in energy. The excitation of the reaction ${\mathrm{Na}}^{23}(d,p){\mathrm{Na}}^{24}$ shows the same shape but begins at about 1 Mev and reaches its maximum value of 4.7\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}${10}^{\ensuremath{-}25}$ ${\mathrm{cm}}^{2}$ at 6 Mev. The reaction $\mathrm{Br}(d,2n)\mathrm{Kr}$ shows a definite threshold at 5.3 Mev and rises almost linearly with increase in deuteron energy. Comparisons of these curves with the theory of Konopinski and Bethe indicate that the angular momentum with which the compound nucleus is formed is an important factor influencing the competition for the disruption of the compound nucleus.