Funerary Practices Research Articles

Mummy Labels: A Witness to the Use and Processing of Wood in Roman Egypt

Abstract Mummy labels are relics found in large quantities in Egypt, often in an excellent state of preservation (like most woods preserved in arid environments). As a result, they are widespread in Roman Egyptian collections of many museums. These labels reflect funerary practices that possess Egyptian and Roman influences and are an important source of historical and archaeological information. These corpora of mummy labels offer several possibilities for investigation. The inscriptions on these labels have been the subject of an international project (Death on the Nile) in which all accessible objects were recorded in a database. However, the potential of these funerary objects extend beyond the inscriptions to the methods of manufacturing and cutting, the choice of species used, and their dendrochronological potential to better define their chronology and possibly their provenance. The study of mummy labels allows us to propose a new typology, some forms of which seem to be limited to certain necropolises. Mummy labels, whether made by the family of the deceased or by specific workshops, show that their realizations vary greatly, ranging from coarse specimens to others with beautiful detailing. They are made from endemic as well as imported species, which are symbolic of long-distance trade, especially for conifer trees, which are well represented. Their dendrochronological potential has also been demonstrated in numerous studies, some of which have allowed the identification of labels from the same tree, supported by inscriptions attesting to the same family relationship.

Christianity.

The Christian faith is founded on the principle that human life is sacred, a gift from God, the Heavenly Father. Christians live to love and glorify God. Throughout life, they witness a myriad of life events covering the spectrum from euphoric highs to devastating lows. Be it joy or sorrow, faith in God, having been established through a personal relationship with His Son, Jesus Christ of Nazareth as Savior and Lord, sustains and guides every step. The end of life is the closing earthly chapter, often shared with family members, a chaplain, parish pastor, or another spiritual care provider assisting the dying Christian with compassionate and significant conversations. It is a time to complete preparations for the final journey every Christian takes from this life into the glorious eternal life prepared in heaven with God the Heavenly Father, Jesus Christ the Savior, family, and friends who have gone before. This chapter examines various rituals and practices of the Christian faith observed during the end of life, legacy or life review, funeral practices, burial rituals following death, beliefs about the afterlife that inspire and inform the great hopes of Christian living, and bereavement support for grieving.

Lived Experiences of the Bereaved in the COVID-19 Era in Harare East, Zimbabwe

Introduction: The aim of this study was to learn about the lives of people who lost loved ones to the coronavirus and were unable to carry out the customary funeral rituals or practices due to restrictions imposed by authorities. This study investigated the meanings that the bereaved assigned to funeral practices during the COVID-19 era, investigating the experiences of the bereaved in COVID-19 deaths, and to determine which alternative rituals could assist in copying with the loss of a loved one, and to investigate the concept of delayed rituals. Methods: Qualitative method was used for this study, employing snowballing and purposeful sampling. Results: The study came up with three different phases that were experienced by the bereaved families during the covid-19 pandemic, and these were, the phase before death and during illness; the phase after death and the initial rituals and the phase during the period of mourning. Conclusion: There is need for people to draw a leaf from the lesson portrayed by COVID-19, the pandemic revealed that, once mourning has passed, most people are able to bounce back and move on with their lives.

Transferring Deceased Bodies, Building Transnational Communities. The Case of Kyrgyz and Tajik Migrants in Russia

Based on ethnographic fieldwork with Central Asian hometown organisations in Russia, this paper focuses on the interplay of funerary practices and the construction of transnational communities among Kyrgyz and Tajik immigrants. In particular, the authors examine how good death and the moral economy of death are enacted in a transnational setting and contribute to reinforcing forms of “transnational moral territoriality” (Lacroix, 2019). Through experiential learning on the ground, community leaders have learnt to take care of and send home a deceased fellow citizen, organising routine procedures and emergency funds. In doing so, they actively contribute to the stabilisation of transnational community practices. Inspired by the growing anthropological literature on transnational community building elsewhere, the authors contribute to this body of scholarship by focusing on post-Soviet hometown associations (whose members sometimes refer to themselves as “activists”), their impact on migrants’ daily lives, as well as community-building and death-related practices abroad that are socially, culturally, or economically significant.

Peculiarities of the Funeral Treatment Applied to Children in the Province of Scythia Minor

The article represents a contribution to the funerary archeology of the province of Scythia, outlining the picture related to the funerary practices addressed to children. It is emphasized that the burial rituals, most of the time, were different from those applied to adults in terms of the space within the necropolises, the position, the orientation, or the burial inventory.

Visual Transmission in Tibetan Ritual Polemics

Tibetan Buddhist debates about funerary practices feature no shortage of hairsplitting. In their writings on funerary rituals in the tradition of the Sarvadurgatipariśodhana Tantra, the prolific Bo dong Paṇ chen Phyogs las rnam rgyal (1375/76–1451) and the Sa skya pa savant Go rams pa Bsod nams seng ge (1429–89) quarrel over what might appear to be very minor issues. This article looks at one such exchange, specifically, how these exegetes understand the details of “visual transmission” and how successive iterations of observation and imitation between master and disciple constitute an authoritative lineage. The article reveals that the specifics of each author’s position on visual transmission was the product of polemical pressures for each one to articulate the specifics of their viewpoint. Understanding a disagreement like this requires contextualization. When Go rams pa was writing his response to Bo dong Paṇ chen, he was receiving support from a local ruler who had been a disciple of the late Bo dong Paṇ chen. Looking to secure further patronage for himself and the Sa skya tradition more broadly, Go rams pa certainly had reason to defend the Sa skya patriarch Rje btsun Grags pa rgyal mtshan (1147–1216) against Bo dong Paṇ chen’s critiques. However, limiting this debate to issues of patronage would be reductive at best. Although this point of disagreement may seem minor, it reveals a sophisticated analysis on how textual and empirical evidence cohere in order to determine correct tantric practice. In this sense, elements of tantric Buddhist traditions are deeply indebted to empirical knowledge.

Investigating Nubian funerary practices of marginal communities : new evidence from a Kerma cemetery at Ginis

Investigating Nubian funerary practices of marginal communities : new evidence from a Kerma cemetery at Ginis

Side notes to an exhibition : Some remarks on early medieval lamellar armours

The team at the LVR-Landesmuseum in Bonn took on a major task in 2021 when they began planning the exhibition entitled Das Leben des BODI: Eine Forschungsreise ins frühe Mittelalter (The Life of BODI: A Research Journey into the Early Middle Ages), based around a burial site with outstanding artefacts. The central theme of the exhibition, which opened in March 2023, is the ways of social representation of the elite in the Early Middle Ages and the burials and grave finds associated with them (Fig. 1), including the lamellar armour finds from many burials of the period in different parts of Europe. Similar armours can also be found in the Avar archaeological record, the most significant specimen found in a grave at Derecske-Bikás-dűlő in 2019. The exhibition included armour fragments from the sites Kölked-Feketekapu B and Kiskőrös-Vágóhíd, lent from the collection of the Hungarian National Museum. This study summarises the brief history of research into the role of lamellar armour in the Avar funerary practice and the possibilities of its interpretation.

The Egypto-Aramaean Stela of Ahatabu (Berlin ÄM 7707): A Cross-Cultural Discussion

The mortuary stela of a woman named Ahatabu, found in the Saqqara necropolis in Egypt, is a uniquely customized artefact that gives insight into the multicultural environment of Achaemenid Egypt (526–332 BCE). The woman and her family seem to have lived in Marea in the western Delta, possibly in a garrison complex. The stela contains two inscriptions, one written in Egyptian hieroglyphic script and the other in Aramaic. The stela design draws on a mixture of generic and highly customized features rooted in traditional Egyptian and arguably Yahwistic, (Egypto-)Phoenician, Aramaean, Egypto-Carian, Egypto-Ionian, and (Egypto-)Persian cultural traditions. Though unusual from an iconographic standpoint with respect to both comparable Egypto-Egyptian depictions and contemporary or slightly earlier Egypto-foreign stelae, the basic design of three registers spread over the whole stela while integrating the rounded stela top and the upper register is typical of a group of Egypto-Carian/Ionian stelae from Memphis. The inspiration may have come either from a contemporarily visible display in the necropolis or from actual designs within the various workshops. This article discusses the iconographic and epigraphic details of the stela in order to contextualize the artefact and its honorees within contemporary Egyptian design and funerary practices.

Directions for improving funeral services (through the example of St. Petersburg)

Aim. The presented study aims to develop proposals for improving funeral services using modern technologies while preserving traditional burial methods. Tasks. The authors investigate the development of funeral services through the example of St. Petersburg; analyze the laws of the Russian Federation (RF) and St. Petersburg governing the allocation of land plots for cemeteries and approaches to burial; develop proposals for improving funeral services and the use of state property (land plots). Methods. This study uses general scientific methods, structural, functional, institutional, and systems analysis. Results. The major funeral service practices in St. Petersburg are examined. The current laws of the Russian Federation and St. Petersburg pertaining to the allocation of land plots for cemeteries and approaches to burial are analyzed. Proposals for improving funeral services through the example of St. Petersburg and optimizing the use of state property (land plots) are developed. Conclusions. Current trends indicate that the number of places for burial in Russia and St. Petersburg is reducing, forcing public authorities to allocate new territories for funeral services. That said, the study shows that state and municipal property (land plots for burial) can be used more efficiently with modern technologies and certain adjustments to the current legislation. The proposed measures will improve the efficiency of funeral services.

Dying for a Drink on the Meroitic Frontier: Imported Objects in Funerary Assemblages at Faras, Sudanese Nubia

This paper examines the use of imported objects in funerary assemblages at the Meroitic cemetery of Faras in Sudanese Nubia (north Sudan). Excavated at the beginning of the 20th century by Francis Llewellyn Griffith (1862-1934), Faras was situated on the frontier between the Kingdom of Meroë (c.300 BCE – 350 CE) and Ptolemaic-Roman Egypt. Its location granted it access to wide-ranging commercial networks and imported objects were frequently utilised as grave goods. Drawing upon the author’s PhD research, this paper offers a nuanced assessment of how imports were selected and used in funerary practice at Faras. It disputes the traditional idea that the Meroitic frontier functioned as an acculturated buffer of the classical world and demonstrates that, despite centuries of material contact with Egypt, the people of Faras maintained a distinctly Meroitic identity expressed through local mortuary tradition.

Bell Beaker Burial Customs in North-western France

Ever since large amounts of Bell Beaker complex pottery were first discovered within megalithic graves in north-western France, the Bell Beaker has been tightly tied to the ‘megalithic phenomenon’. However, the fact of construction of these various kinds of megalithic monument during the Middle to Late Neolithic pre-dates the users of Bell Beakers. While this is a case of the re-use of older funerary monuments, it is assumed that Bell Beaker funerary practices witness a shift from Neolithic collective burial to individual inhumation. For a long time finds from the megalithic graves have constituted our main source of information on the Bell Beaker complex in north-western France. However, these ‘artificial caves’ have biased our understanding of the Bell Beaker complex and, in particular, of its funerary practices. The re-assessment of old finds and recent large-scale excavations have brought to light a large number of new sites, revealing a greater diversity in Bell Beaker funerary practices in the region than had been perceived previously. In the first part, we set the broader picture, stating what we know or can say about funerary practices during the Recent and Late Neolithic (3350–2550 bc), before the beginning of the Bell Beaker phenomenon. We then discuss the different Bell Beaker burial practices (2550–1950 bc), their chronological and regional variabilities, and, above all, the research biases that might have affected their understanding.

The day the music died: Making and playing bone wind instruments at La Real in Middle Horizon, Peru (600–1000 CE)

• Forty bone wind instruments (aerophones) produced from camelids and condors were recovered from La Real, Arequipa. • Recreating a chaîne opératoire can illustrate the way these instruments were produced and played by all members of society. • Use of these instruments is abandoned in the later Middle Horizon overlapping with Wari expansion into the region. • Condor and camelid bone related to the symbolism of Andean mobile agropastoral communities and gender complementarity. • Cessation of making and playing these bone instruments attests to shifting ideologies about musical experiences. Musical performance and audience participation are important activities in both group celebrations and funerary practices. This paper considers the intersection of music and ritual in shifting local mortuary traditions during state expansion in the southern Peruvian Andes. It addresses musical activities and burial rites during the Middle Horizon (MH) (600–1000 CE), a period defined by social change, population expansion and greater influence of the Wari state. We present new evidence for shifting sound-making practices from the site of La Real in the Majes Valley of Arequipa. We mobilize morphological and acoustic analyses to determine the variation in instrument production and the likely idiosyncratic ways that participants played these objects. There is a musical tradition of manufacturing wind instruments from animal bone in the early MH (600–850 CE) followed by abandonment of these practices in the late MH (850–1000 CE). We suggest this shift correlates to a higher valuation of formalized acoustic aesthetics over collective instrument production and group musical performance. Instead of playing their own instruments at mortuary events, communities listened to music as spectators.

Archaeological Evidences of The Non-Christian Rituals in The Serbian Part of The Danubian Region During The Middle Ages

In the settlement strata dated to the 12th and 13th centuries, within three Byzantine border forts along the Serbian part of the Danubian region (Morava, Braničevo and Egeta), ritual bird offerings that preceded the erection of various buildings were archaeologically testified. Namely, whole ceramic vessels were placed upside down in pits and within them were the skeletal remains of chicken of various ages. Magic power of the ritual was additionally amplified by other offerings, such as iron knives and nails, while on one occasion small glass amorphous objects were likewise detected.
 Numerous similar examples of building deposits were detected all over Europe during the 12th and 13th centuries. Since mentioned rituals were tied to folk beliefs that, unlike the official religion, didn`t have strict norms, numerous variations occurred. For example, vessels were mainly placed upside down, but some were placed on their bottoms and covered with fragment of another ceramic vessel. Considering sacrificed animals, they were mostly hens and roosters, as well as gees and pond birds, sometimes eggs, pikes, dogs or cats, and the magic power was likewise amplified by diverse additional offerings. Practicing the said ritual was always tied to the turbulent times.
 It is interesting to notice that, on the central Balkans, there are no archaeological traces of this ritual during the period from the late 5th to the early 7th century. That was the time when firm church organization functioned in this area and Christian customs were strictly obeyed. The collapse of the Byzantine state at the beginning of the 7th century, as well as settling of new peoples, led to the abandonment of Christian customs or their arbitrary interpretation and implementation. Therefore, during the early medieval period on the territory of the Serbian part of the Danubian region, the sacrificing of animals when erecting the buildings offen occured.
 The re-establishing of the Byzantine rule on the central Balkans at the beginning of the 11th century led to the definite embedment of Christianity and abandonment of pagan elements in funerary practice. Still, during the turbulent 12th century, marked by intensive conflicts between Byzantium and Magyars in the Serbian part of the Danubian region, the practice of non-Christian rituals when burying of building deposits, occurred once again. Wishing to secure safety, peace and salvation during the times of crisis, the Christian community reached out not only for God`s intervention, but also for help of other „greater forces“. Although the character of folk beliefs and Christian norms of official church were, on the first sight, diametrically opposed, one should bear in mind the fact that during the Middle Ages folk belief wasn’t in complete contrast to the Christianity. Namely, pre-Christian and Christian elements were not two confronted sides, but they both shaped the beliefs within Christian communities. Considering the fact that in both cases the adherence to certain norms of behaviour is actually based on personal beliefs of each individual, the choice of what someone will believe in, is closely tied to challenges of that particular historical moment and to his/hers choice of rituals that he/she believes would provide help.

When the Cemetery Becomes Political: Dealing with the Religious Heritage in Multi-Ethnic Regions

When the Cemetery Becomes Political: Dealing with the Religious Heritage in Multi-Ethnic Regions

The Origin and Character of God: Ancient Israelite Religion through the Lens of Divinity, Yahweh before Israel: Glimpses of History in a Divine Name and Yahweh: Origin of a Desert God

The Origin and Character of God: Ancient Israelite Religion through the Lens of Divinity, Yahweh before Israel: Glimpses of History in a Divine Name and Yahweh: Origin of a Desert God

Social structures in Late Iron Age Transylvania. Archaeological evidence of social competition and hierarchy

The scope of this article is to discuss the main components of the social structures which characterized the “Celtic” and the “Dacian” cultural and chronological horizons, and to identify, on the basis of the available archaeological evidence, the means and practices through which social hierarchy and competition was expressed within the communities of each horizon. The rural society specific to the “Celtic” horizon was largely heterarchic, whereas the “Dacian” horizon was characterized by a hierarchic social organization. The differences between these two horizons can be observed in the funerary practices, the organization of the landscape, and the range of visual symbols used in the expression of social status and power by the local elites.

Virtual technical analysis of archaeological textiles by synchrotron microtomography

Archaeological textile remains from Antiquity are rare due to their perishable nature. In certain cases, the conservation of the morphology and/or of chemical signatures can be exquisite. Detailed archaeological information on the social and cultural life of past societies, such as on funerary practices, can then be deduced from their study. In temperate climates, these cases of exceptional preservation mainly involve textiles closely associated with corroded metal artefacts (i.e. copper or iron based), through a process called mineralisation. An essential step in understanding these textiles is the study of morphometric parameters documenting their manufacturing processes, which is carried out by archaeologists under the name of technical analysis. In this article, we show how the use of high-resolution synchrotron-based microtomography (μCT) can contribute to performing a non-invasive 3D technical analysis of archaeological textiles and overpass several limitations of the conventional techniques. We show that several standard parameters (e.g. weave type, type of yarn, direction of twist, thread count) characterising the manufacturing of these ancient textiles can be determined, while some of them are very difficult to obtain using optical and electronic microscopies. In addition, the statistical representativeness of the data can be examined. The comparison between the three approaches – manual measurements either from surface microscopy or from selected virtual sections and automated analysis on 3D volumes – leads to question the differences between the quantitative results obtained. While the manual selection of measurement points is inherently associated to perceptual biases, the automated process may also come with limitations and biases which we detail in order to make the method more robust for future use. We analyse these implications by studying a textile from the locality of Le Paradis in Creney-près-Troyes (Aube, France, 5th century BC), taken as a typical case of fragmentary textile difficult to analyse by standard analytical methods.

Антропологические материалы из детских погребений катакомбной культуры (по коллекции хранилища остеологических материалов Калмыцкого научного центра РАН)

Introduction. The article examines Middle Bronze Age (Catacomb culture) skeletal remains of children and adolescents housed at the Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) and attempts an evaluative insight into how informative those can be. Analyses of children and youngsters’ burials may deepen the understanding of ancient societies, actualize data on mortality and health conditions faced by non-adults. Goals. The osteological collection of Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) includes skeletal remains of over one and a half thousand individuals from burials dated to the Bronze Age throughout the Late Medieval Period. Nowadays the latter are being systemized, and a complete database is being compiled. The arrangements have revealed materials from children’s burials. Thematic reviews are aimed at identifying certain aspects of scholarly significance inherent to the skeletal remains repository created at Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) and provide additional research insights into collected anthropological materials. Materials and methods. The review involves skeletal remains of children and adolescents numbering 129. In terms of cultural chronology, the bulk of the latter come from Catacomb burials, i.e. the Middle Bronze Age. So, the work scrutinizes the mentioned cluster of remains from 43 individuals. The compiled tables describe key characteristics. Peculiarities of the selected samples are also identified, and statistical analysis proves instrumental therein. The findings are compared to data on funeral practices provided by archaeologists for wider ranges of sites. Results. The study shows that conditions of bones are fine enough for both traditional anthropological evaluations and genetic, radiocarbon, isotopic ones. The analysis of funeral practices characterizing children’s Catacomb burials concludes the latter showed no essential differences from those of adults, i.e. virtually identical are proportions of main and inlet burials, structural patterns of burial graves, and characteristics of accompanying utensils excavated.

Антропологические материалы из детских погребений катакомбной культуры (по коллекции хранилища остеологических материалов Калмыцкого научного центра РАН)

Introduction. The article examines Middle Bronze Age (Catacomb culture) skeletal remains of children and adolescents housed at the Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) and attempts an evaluative insight into how informative those can be. Analyses of children and youngsters’ burials may deepen the understanding of ancient societies, actualize data on mortality and health conditions faced by non-adults. Goals. The osteological collection of Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) includes skeletal remains of over one and a half thousand individuals from burials dated to the Bronze Age throughout the Late Medieval Period. Nowadays the latter are being systemized, and a complete database is being compiled. The arrangements have revealed materials from children’s burials. Thematic reviews are aimed at identifying certain aspects of scholarly significance inherent to the skeletal remains repository created at Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) and provide additional research insights into collected anthropological materials. Materials and methods. The review involves skeletal remains of children and adolescents numbering 129. In terms of cultural chronology, the bulk of the latter come from Catacomb burials, i.e. the Middle Bronze Age. So, the work scrutinizes the mentioned cluster of remains from 43 individuals. The compiled tables describe key characteristics. Peculiarities of the selected samples are also identified, and statistical analysis proves instrumental therein. The findings are compared to data on funeral practices provided by archaeologists for wider ranges of sites. Results. The study shows that conditions of bones are fine enough for both traditional anthropological evaluations and genetic, radiocarbon, isotopic ones. The analysis of funeral practices characterizing children’s Catacomb burials concludes the latter showed no essential differences from those of adults, i.e. virtually identical are proportions of main and inlet burials, structural patterns of burial graves, and characteristics of accompanying utensils excavated.