Fuelwood Extraction Research Articles

Monitoring degradation in arid and semi-arid forests and woodlands: The case of the argan woodlands (Morocco)

Arid and semi-arid forests and woodlands (hereafter called «dryland forests»), in spite of their ecological and social importance, have received little attention in land change studies. Growing evidence shows that these forests have been receding at very high rates in many places, suggesting a need for a better understanding of the processes and causes of dryland forest degradation. Changes in the extent of dryland forests are debated in part because estimates of forest and woodland areas in drylands are uncertain. Causal explanations of the degradation tend to draw on the literature on desertification and tropical deforestation, and to emphasize either local or remote, and either social or biophysical drivers. This study contributes to a better understanding of dryland forest degradation as a basis for conservation policies. Firstly, we argue that monitoring arid and semi-arid forests and woodlands using area estimates may lead to an underestimation of the severity of change because tree density change often exceeds area change. Secondly, we argue that the analysis of degradation processes in these multifunctional landscapes should integrate both local and remote, and both social and biophysical factors. We use a case study of degradation in the argania woodlands in semi-arid to arid Southwest Morocco to test these two claims. We used gridded tree counts on aerial photographs and satellite images to estimate forest change between 1970 and 2007, and we tested several possible causes of change on the basis of original socio-economic field surveys and climatic and topographic data. We found that forest density declined by 44.5% during this period, a figure that is significantly underestimated if forest area change is used as a measure of degradation. Increasing aridity and, to a lesser extent, fuelwood extraction were related to forest decline. No effect of grazing by local livestock was found.

Natural resources assessment and their utilization

The present paper quantifies and reviews the natural resource use in the Himalayan state of Himachal Pradesh (HP). Twenty-five percent of the geographical area of HP is under forests and harbour ca. 3,400 plant species. The available bioresources not only support the livelihood of nearly 6 million people but also fulfill the forage requirement of 5.2 million livestock. Thus, dependence on bioresources is manifold. Based on field surveys to different localities of HP and analyses of published information, two types of resource use patterns have been identified. One, the direct use of forest resources which is represented by extraction of timber, fuelwood and fodder; and the second represents indirect resource use from the forest that is represented by activities related to agriculture, tourism and industry. Amongst the direct resource use, annual timber requirement of the local people works out to be 310,063 m(3). On the other hand, annual fuelwood and fodder requirement of local people is to the tune of 3,646,348.8 and 10,294,116.5 tons, respectively. Extraction of fodder therefore appears to be one of the main reasons for forest degradation in HP as opposed to timber and fuelwood extraction. However, compared to direct resource use, indirect resource use and pressures have far more pronounced effect on the forests. Of the indirect pressures, shifts in agriculture patterns and increased tourism seem to be the most prominent.

Fuelwood utilization in Majuli River Island of Assam

A survey was conducted on demand and supply of fuelwood in the Majuli subdivision of Jorhat district of Assam. People of the area are mainly rural and cultivation is the main source of livelihood. A total of 490.30 tons of fuelwood is extracted annually. The share of supply of fuelwood from homestead, bamboo stead and forest is 88%, 7% and 5% respectively. The per capita extraction of fuelwood in the region is 613 kg yr-1. The total consumption of fuelwood is 375.63 t yr-1. Out of this, 89% is mainly consumed in cooking, 9% in community function and rest 2% in cremation. The per capita consumption of fuelwood is 470 kg yr-1 in the region. There is a huge amount of fuel wood i.e. 114.67 tons is found to be surplus in the region that counts 30.53 percent of the total consumption. The per capita surplus of fuelwood is 143 kg yr-1. A total of 19 species of fuelwood are in use in the area. Out of which, the most preferred fuel wood species is Melia azedarach (Ghora neem) followed by Albizia lucida (Moj).

Threshold change in forest understory vegetation as a result of selective fuelwood extraction in Nairobi, Kenya

We examined whether heavy fuelwood collection can cause threshold change in understory forest community and evaluated how selective wood extraction might lead to delayed forest recovery in an urban forest of Nairobi, Kenya. Piecewise regression which represents strongest support for threshold change provided the best fit for the relationships between understory floristic composition (i.e. DCA axis 1) and human disturbance gradients (i.e. canopy cover, and distance from the slum), where threshold changes were detected at c.a. 350 m from the slum and c.a. 30% canopy cover. Only one tree species significantly indicated communities beyond the threshold while an aggressive invasive alien plant (IAP) Lantana camara was strongly represented. Total species diversity along the two human disturbance gradients peaked before the threshold was reached, suggesting that decline in species diversity along the prevailing disturbance gradient might be able to forecast threshold change. Tree species richness in the understory rapidly declined as the threshold was surpassed while other growth forms (i.e. shrubs, herbs and climbers) were relatively unaffected. The effect of selective tree cutting was indirectly impacting the forest understory as species richness pattern of preferred and non-preferred species paralleled that of trees and shrubs, respectively. Thickets of L. camara can negatively affect indigenous flora and its establishment was favored under selective fuelwood extraction removing certain tree species while leaving the IAP untouched. Shading can readily eliminate the IAP, but weak tree regeneration beyond the threshold suggested forest recovery might be delayed for longer than expected because of the interaction between selective fuelwood use and the IAP.

Impact of Pastoral Practices on Forest Cover and Regeneration in the Outer Fringes of Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Himalaya

The study reports the impact of migratory livestock in the buffer area of Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary. The cumulative impacts of livestock grazing, fuel wood extraction and other anthropogenic pressures on forest cover in and around camping sites have been analyzed using satellite data and field observations. Multi-date satellite data were used to map the forest cover around 16 seasonal livestock camps. An annual loss of about 7.25 ha of forest covers during 1976–1990, 13.57 ha during 1990–1999 and 11.46 ha during 1999–2005 are recorded. A loss of 108.53 ha of forestland has been estimated during 1976–1990, about 122.16 ha during 1990–1999 and 68.78 ha during 1999–2005. It is also observed that many of the isolated camping sites are now connected due to loss of vegetation. Phytosociological analysis indicates that the number of seedlings and saplings in three species of Quercus (Q. leucotrichophora, Q. floribunda and Q. semecarpifolia) as compared to mature tress is very less around cattle camping sites. The ratio of number of sapling with seedling and trees indicates that the status of sapling is nil to very poor, an indication of loss of saplings due to either trampling or grazing.

Strategies for the control of desertification in northern Nigeria

The Northern part of Nigeria especially the frontline states comprising of Bauchi/ Gombe, Borno, Yobe, Jigawa, Kano, Katsina, Sokoto/Zamfara and Kebbi which lie roughly North of latitude 120N face serious threats of desertification occasioned by over exposure of the fragile environment mostly through improper farming techniques, overgrazing by livestock and occurrence of frequent fires and drought. This ugly trend is further exacerbated by increase in the rate of fuel wood extraction especially by communities near to forest reserves due to high costs of alternative sources of domestic energy such as kerosene, gas and electricity. The need to maintain soils with stable structural aggregates which could contain more organic matter is crucial in combating desertification; hence choice of tree species to be used for shelter belt establishment is very important. Litters that drop from most leguminous trees decay and add more organic matter to the soil. Poor extension approaches and lack of adequate community participation in and adoption of tree planting technology and government’s role in formulating and executing forest policies are some of the reasons why it has been difficult to control desertification in Northern Nigeria. Different extension approaches such as Training and Visit (T&V), Training and Demonstration (T&D), mass mobilization of people, use of electronic and print media can be incorporated into various agroforestry practices such as the scattered farm trees, silvi-pastoral and agro-silvi-pastoral systems, and shelterbelt establishment in order to help alleviate the problems of desertification in Northern Nigeria. Post planting maintenance of trees should be taught and encouraged among communities where trees have been planted. Government and some non-governmental agencies have proffered various suggestions aimed at stemming the menace of desertification but these are yet to yield results.

Sustainable Utilization of Mangroves Using Improved Fish-Smoking Systems: A Management Perspective from the Douala-Edea Wildlife Reserve, Cameroon

Fuel wood extraction for commercial fish smoking is the most pervasive threat to the sustainability of mangrove ecosystems in the Douala-Edea Wildlife Reserve (DEWR) of Cameroon and most West-Central African coastal states. The high rates of fuel-wood consumption are associated with fish smoking in this region and are chiefly the result of low fuel efficiency systems. In this study, we investigated the relative efficiency of two fish-smoking systems with respect to fuel wood consumption and time required for fish smoking in the DEWR. Using socio-economic and forest surveys in three villages, where mangrove wood is harvested and used, we established that the annual fuel-wood off-take was about 42,839m3. In addition, most of the wood is used for fish smoking in the Traditional Smoke System (TSS) method, which was assessed to be 70% less efficient than the Improved Smoke System (Eeyed/CWCS). The Eeyed/CWCS consumed on average 50% less wood than the TSS, and reduced fish-smoking time by up-to 65% relative to the TSS. This comparative advantage offers opportunities for reducing the incidence of smoke-related diseases in women and children–most of them involved in the smoking process—by reducing the time spent smoking fish and saving money from avoided additional wood consumption. However, these benefits can only be achieved through the successful introduction of the Eeyed/CWCS. This will require a broad range of sensitization, capacity enhancement, and further research on adapting the current model to local conditions of the area.

The structure and status of forest fragments outside protected areas in central Uganda

AbstractGiven the extent of tropical forest deforestation and as a number of conservation programmes and local communities rely on forest fragments, it has become important to understand how fragment exploitation by local communities affects forest structure and function. The effects of forest exploitation on forest structure and status of forest fragments were investigated in 20 nonreserved forest fragments in central Uganda. Enumeration of plots showed that tree species composition of the forest fragments was 60.0%, 23.7% and 6.3% for under‐storey, middle and top canopy trees respectively. The major activity was fuel wood extraction (65%), followed by brick making (10%), cultivation and livestock paddocks (10%), charcoal burning (5%), local brew distillation and others (5%). These extractive processes caused drastic structural changes, habitat degradation and destruction. Tree stumps enumeration indicated that under storey trees formed the highest proportion for wood extraction. There was no significant difference in the level of forest exploitation (basal area loss) among forest patches of varying sizes.

Long-Term Impacts of Fuelwood Extraction on a Tropical Montane Cloud Forest

Fuelwood extracted from natural forests serves as a principal energy source in rural regions of many tropical countries. Although fuelwood extraction (even low intensities) might strongly impact the structure and species composition of natural forests, long-term studies remain scarce. Here, we estimate the potential long-term impacts (over several hundred years) of such repeated harvesting of single trees on tropical montane cloud forest in central Veracruz, Mexico, by applying a process-based forest growth model. We simulate a wide range of possible harvesting scenarios differing in wood volume harvested and preferred tree species and sizes, and use a set of indicators to compare their impacts on forest size structure and community composition. Results showed that the overall impact on forest structure and community composition increased linearly with the amount of harvested wood volume. Even at low levels of harvesting, forest size structure became more homogeneous in the long term because large old trees disappeared from the forest, but these changes might take decades or even centuries. Although recruitment of harvested species benefited from harvesting, species composition shifted to tree species that are not used for fuelwood. Our results demonstrate that fuelwood extraction can have marked long-term impacts on tropical montane cloud forests. The results also offer the possibility to support the design of management strategies for the natural species-rich forests that achieve a balance between economic needs and ecological goals of the stakeholders.

Land use analysis from spatial and field data capture in southern Burkina Faso, West Africa

Informed decision on the management of natural resources requires an understanding of the complex dynamics of socio-economic and biophysical factors. This study aimed at exploring the land use change in southern Burkina Faso at regional and local levels and the underlying causes of change. The local level study was conducted in two villages, Boala and Yalé, in Sissili Province. Aerial photos from 1984 and 1997 and satellite images from 1986 and 2002 were employed to describe the land use dynamics. The spatial approach was combined with field data collected in 2003 and 2005 for ground-truth checking and gathering other relevant data. Semi-structured questionnaire was used for gathering data on socio-economic factors driving land use changes at local level. At regional scale, the annual rate of change in forest land, grazing land, gallery forest and cropland was −0.4, −0.9, −1.6 and 3.8%, respectively. The size of croplands increased by 14% in some districts with an equivalent annual rate of conversion to cropland estimated at 0.6% during 1986–2002. At the local level, the size of croplands increased from 7 to 14% in Boala and from 21 to 30% in Yalé at the expense of shrinking of forest cover from 78 to 40% in the former and from 41 to 18% in the latter village. Rural migration (3.3% at regional level, and as high as 97% in Yalé and 9% in Boala) coupled with extensive subsistence farming, large-scale commercial farming, intensive fuelwood extraction and other disturbances were the main factors driving land use change. In conclusion, the results show that in a decade and half the southern region of Burkina Faso has moved from a sparsely populated area with subsistence farming to a more complex zone of production characterized by high competition between different land use types. Integrated management of the natural resources in the region should, therefore, be given more attention.

Role of income diversification in protecting natural forests: evidence from rural households in forest margins of Sri Lanka

Income diversification among households living in forest margins helps to maintain a sustainable livelihood. Reducing forest dependency helps in-situ conservation of biodiversity thereby conserving forest resources. This paper presents evidence of income diversification and its effects on forest resource extraction by rural communities living in forest margins. Diversified income sources of typical households include crop farming, off-farm employment, animal husbandry, home gardening and extraction of non-timber forest products and fuelwood. The calculated mean indexes of diversification for the households in forest margins under investigation were 2.53, 2.57, 2.19 and 2.25. Results of the analysis show that the income diversification index had a negative and significant effect on dependency of rural households on forest resource extraction for three forest reserves. A positive relation between the index of income diversification and total income indicates an increase in household income due to increasing diversification income sources. However, given the complex nature of protecting natural forests, income diversification should be part of a broader integrated policy goal to protect natural forests.

Ecosystem impacts of disturbance in a dry tropical forest in southern India

AbstractIndian forests provide a multitude of services to vast populations. Common human activities including livestock grazing, fuelwood extraction and burning have the potential to impact forest ecosystem structure and function. The effects of these activities on vegetation, ecology and soil properties were investigated in Bandipur National Park (BNP) in southern India. Data were collected from 200 sites in four watersheds within the park. Sample sites spanned a degradation gradient measured by a field disturbance index (FDI). This paper focusses on the impacts on vegetation structure, diversity and composition, and integrates impacts on soil. Shrub and tree species were inventoried and evaluated in plots 10‐m in diameter. The tree layer was dominated by Anogeissus–Emblica–Tectona species. The understory was dominated by invasives Chromolaena odorata and Lantana camara, and native Gymnosporia emarginata. Vegetation plot heights, canopy cover and tree diameters were negatively correlated with field disturbance resulting in stunted forest stature in degraded sites. Vegetation composition in degraded watersheds was dominated by small woody tree species and a greater diversity of shrub species. Ordination analysis was used to integrate soil data with vegetation and disturbance, revealing that deciduous forest in the park is degrading to scrub forest along with negative impacts on soil characteristics. Consequences of services currently enjoyed by local populations are discussed. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Impacts of disturbance on soil properties in a dry tropical forest in Southern India

AbstractGrazing, fuelwood extraction and burning are common human activities in Indian forests. These activities can represent forest disturbances that drive the degradation of natural deciduous forest cover to scrub forest, with concurrent impacts on soils. The effects of human forest use on ecosystem functions were investigated in Bandipur National Park (BNP) in Peninsular India. This paper reports the impacts on surface soils. Soils were sampled from 200 locations covering four watersheds within the Park. These samples spanned a degradation gradient measured by a field disturbance index (FDI). Soil physical, nutrient and hydraulic properties were measured. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) and saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks) were analyzed as key response variables describing nutrient availability and infiltration respectively. Effects of cattle and jeep trails on infiltration and bulk density were evaluated by sampling on‐and‐off trails. Trail density in research watersheds was estimated with satellite imagery. Soil nutrient availability is negatively impacted by disturbance, resulting from negative impacts on soil organic carbon (SOC) and clay content. Available water capacity (AWC) and saturated moisture content (SMC) were significantly higher in protected watersheds, attributed to reduced clay content in degraded watersheds. Off trails, high spatial variability in infiltration overwhelmed any meaningful trends with disturbance. However, infiltration was substantially reduced on trails as a result of significant increase in bulk density. The density of trails was considerably higher in degraded watersheds compared to protected watersheds. These results provide ground‐based and remotely sensed evidence that forest disturbance within the Park has negative impacts on soil organic matter, nutrient availability and hydraulic characteristics. These have consequences for related ecological, nutrient cycling and hydrological processes, and the continuation of the services currently enjoyed by local human populations. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Effects of forest-fuel harvesting on the amount of deadwood on clear-cuts

Forest residue left after clear-cutting is increasingly being used as biofuel in Sweden. Deadwood is an important habitat for many species and a crucial resource for forest biodiversity. On eight clear-cuts in eastern central Sweden, the amount of Picea abies (L.) Karst. deadwood left on the ground was compared with the amount collected in piles for fuelwood extraction. It was found that 65% of the volume, 77% of the surface area and 84% of the pieces of slash were to be extracted. In another study on 23 clear-cuts in the same region, it was found that 36% of the logs left outside piles after clear-cutting were later removed. These studies indicate that a considerable amount of potential substrate is lost during slash extraction.

Cultural Variation, Decision Making, and Local Institutions: An Examination of Fuelwood Use in Western Tanzania

ABSTRACT Understanding human decision making about resource use is the common denominator in effective conservation that hinges on local community involvement. Rational choice theory provides an avenue for better assessing individual-level decision making, but its ability to adequately explain community-level cooperation remains in question. Focusing on two culturally distinct populations residing in Tanzania, East Africa, I employ rational choice theory to test hypothesized relationships between the degree to which local wood resource value is discounted, and individual decisions regarding rate and selectivity of fuelwood extraction. I then relate variation in demonstrated valuation of fuelwood resources to the existence of working rules that monitor fuelwood extraction practices. I find evidence for population-level variation in future discounting of fuelwood resources, reflected in selectivity and rates of use. Evidence of rules that monitor fuelwood extraction practices did not, however, relate to future valuation of fuelwood resource, but rather to the cultural identities of the two populations.

Forest Fire Control and Bedouin Pastoralism in Israel's Afforested Drylands: A Cost Benefit Analysis

Resume Une analyse couts et benefices menee darts une foret en climat semi-aride (Israel) montre que le paturage forestier previent les feux efficacement et a faible cout. Le controle informel de la foret par un groupe pastoral peut, lui aussi, servir a la proteger. D'autres pays en zones seches pourraient integrer avantageusement le paturage a la gestion forestiere. Resumen Se realizo un analisis de costos-beneficios en un bosque de una zona semiarida (Israel). En terminos de costo, el pastoreo es un eficiente control de incendios y cuando hay pastores que vigilan el bosque, se pueden beneficiar el grupo y el bosque. Otros paises con aforestaciones en zonas secas podrian beneficiarse si integran a los pastores en el manejo de sus bosques. Introduction International concern about the negative effects of desertification on human lives, livestock, and ecosystems increased in the 1990s. Overgrazing, land salinization resulting from poor irrigation methods, deforestation caused by social and economic factors and climate variations accelerate land degradation (UNCCD 1995). Around twenty percent of the world's population experiences its dire consequences. Some scholars (Mortimore 1998; Perevolotsky 1995) have expressed reservations about attributing land degradation to an ever-growing livestock economy. Mortimore (1998) actually demonstrated that desertification theories overstated the damage caused by grazing. Indeed, he showed that grazing could be beneficial since manure generated by a large numbers of animals fertilizes the land. In times of drought, pastoralists lessen the load on the land by destocking or migrating. The cyclical pattern of nomadic pastoralism affords pastures a recovery period, improving their sustainability and confirming their role for dryland livestock rearing. Recently, international meetings and bodies have also acknowledged the contribution of mobile pastoralism to rangeland sustainability (Dana Declaration 2002; UNCCD-CRIC 2002). Afforestation is often used with the expectation that it will reverse desertification processes e.g. help retain soil moisture and brake winds, thus slowing soil erosion and increasing soil fertility. Rows of trees can prevent sand dunes from advancing (Forse 1989). Trees also provide 'green' spaces, which can be used for recreational purposes in otherwise barren landscapes. Wood from forests provides fuel to the local population and raw material for industries. Finally, afforestation raises the economic value of land and provides employment (Kaplan et al. 1970). Due to a negative view of pastoralists, they have often been barred from grazing their animals in the forests, many of which were planted on former grazing areas. Planted forests are in fact exposed to deforestation due to excessive fuel wood extraction and livestock grazing on seedlings, low branches and tree bark (Miller 1999). However, adequate management can protect forests from such damage. Publications on forestry have shown how different types of management operate within various contexts (Dyson-Hudson 1991; Cernea 1991). Umrani et al. (1997) have explained how forest range tenures affect users' behaviour. Other researchers have analysed the incorporation of users into forest management plans (Somarriba 1997). Zervas (1997) found that the risk of fires is higher in ungrazed or under-grazed forests, due to fuel accumulation. Gutman et al. (2001) have established that grazing could efficiently reduce understorey biomass in Israel's planted forests, thus satisfying fire control standards. It is especially important that adequate fire prevention methods be carried out in Pinus halepensis planted forests. This tree species was preferred for planting forests because of its fast growth and resistance to drought. However, pine forests are highly flammable and also highly sensitive to parasites due to their monoculture distinctiveness (Woodcock 1996). …

Fuelwood availability and use in the Richtersveld National Park, South Africa

Concern has been voiced about the possible over-use of fuelwood from the riparian fringe by pastoralist herders in the Richtersveld National Park (RNP). This coincided with the current examination and modelling of the supply and use of ecosystem goods and services in the Gariep Basin as part of the Southern African Millennium Assessment (SAfMA). This paper reports on a study to index the current availability of deadwood within the riparian zone of RNP, its relationship with proximity to human habitation, and species preferences of the local herders. Deadwood availability was assessed per woody species and on the ground in 12 transects within the riparian fringe. Herders were interviewed regarding their species preferences, and the composition of woodpiles was examined. There was no relationship between the percentage of attached deadwood on the tree, or the percentage deadwood ground cover, and the distance from herder stockposts. Euclea pseudobenus and Tamarix usneoides were the dominant species in the riparian fringe. There was strong selection for Ziziphus mucronata as a fuelwood species and only marginal or random selection for E. pseudobenus. Tamarix usneoides and Prosopis sp. were abundant in the riparian zone, but were not used for fuelwood. There was a significant difference between species with respect to the mean proportion of the stem that was dead, the highest being Z. mucronata (± 28 % deadwood), followed by T. usneoides (± 12 %). Most of the Prosopis trees had no deadwood. Across all species, the mean percentage dead per tree was approximately 15 %. Additionally, detached deadwood covered just less than 9 % of ground area, averaged across all plots and transects. All the variables measured indicated that there seems to be little need for concern over the current fuelwood extraction activities of pastoralists within the RNP. There was no clear evidence of cutting of branches or deadwood. The abundance of both attached and detached deadwood was not depleted close to human habitation. There was still abundant deadwood, even on preferred species. The most preferred species (Ziziphus mucronata) had the greatest mean proportion of deadwood. The herders stated that they only used deadwood, and that there was plenty. They rarely used driftwood washed down the river, although there was an abundance of it. Thus, overall, there was no sign of depletion of the deadwood resource, even on favoured species, or degradation of the productive capacity for deadwood.

The influence of protected area outreach on conservation attitudes and resource use patterns: a case study from western Tanzania

This case study investigates the conservation attitudes of two ethnic groups, horticulturalist Pimbwe and agropastoralist Sukuma, living around Katavi National Park (KNP) in western Tanzania, East Africa. Specifically, interest in degazetting KNP was examined (as a reflection of attitude towards the Park) relative to type and extent of KNP outreach, wildlife-related problems, household wealth and residency status. Reported attitudes were then related to fuelwood extraction patterns. Attitudinal surveys showed that a lack of KNP outreach (i.e. village-level services and visits by KNP staff) and increased land wealth and shorter residency time were associated with increased interest in seeing KNP degazetted. However, after controlling for ethnicity only recognition of village-level Park services was still associated with positive attitudes towards KNP. People recognizing KNP services also demonstrated more ecologically sustainable wood extraction methods. These results suggest that while attitudinal studies seem to be a logical step towards making informed decisions about the effectiveness of protected area outreach, relating such outreach to behavioural changes in resource use through attitudinal assessment is a greater challenge, requiring a clear understanding of the relative influence of socioeconomic and cultural factors.

Actual and potential carbon stocks in the north-sudanian zone. A case study: The forests of Delhi and Paniates in Senegal

Since the United Nations' Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio in 1992. the problem of global warming and greenhouse gas emissions have become a serious concern for the international community. There is a growing need for scientific research on carbon exchange and storage in the bio- and geosphere, since carbon emissions are of central importance to the natural greenhouse effect. In particular, methods to increase storage of carbon in natural vegetation, and thereby offsetting or delaying further atmospheric concentration of gases such as CO2, are of great interest. If such methods can also achieve other desirable objectives, such as increased production of forestry products, enhanced soil fertility, preservation of biological diversity and minimised soil erosion, they become even more interesting. This paper focuses on the potential for increased storage of carbon in two degraded forests in central Senegal. Data obtained by monitoring two sites in the forests of Delhi and Paniates in the north-sudanian zone over several years are analysed. These two forests showed an average carbon stock of 1.8 x 106 g/ha and 4.4 x 106 g/ha respectively—significantly lower than a third site, located in an undisturbed forest in a similar environment. The amount of carbon release to the atmosphere by burning fuelwood and charcoal-production has been estimated to be negligible on the basis of official data, yet the illegal extraction of fuelwood, production of charcoal and cultivation are still believed to be the main causes of the low level of carbon storage.

Status Review of the Protected‐Area System in Myanmar, with Recommendations for Conservation Planning

Abstract: Myanmar is among the most biologically diverse countries in mainland Southeast Asia. In contrast to its neighbors, large areas of Myanmar's forest cover remain intact, providing a unique opportunity to conserve biodiversity within protected areas. High levels of deforestation, unrestricted hunting, and destructive agricultural practices have resulted in significant wildlife declines and rapid loss of natural habitats. We analyzed the status of 20 of the 31 officially gazetted protected areas in Myanmar within a framework that classified activities incompatible with protected‐area status into two broad categories, small and large scale. Small‐scale incompatibilities driven by economic necessity and lack of alternatives for local populations within and adjacent to protected areas occurred more frequently than large‐scale incompatibilities driven by larger economic interests. Extraction of nontimber forest products was reported in 85% of the protected areas and ranked highest among the 15 identified incompatibilities. Grazing, hunting, fuelwood extraction, and permanent settlements occurred in more than 50% of the parks surveyed. Forty percent of the protected areas had some infrastructure for reserve management (with significant gaps) but insufficient on‐site personnel to adequately perform management activities. Thirty‐five percent had approximately half their staff trained in basic field techniques, and 60% had a planning document that was yet to be implemented. Older protected areas were affected by a greater number of incompatibilities than recently established protected areas. Major recommendations include the critical need to address the issue of hunting; involving local communities in the management of protected areas and buffer zones; building the technical capacity of protected‐area staff; implementing a comprehensive land‐use plan focused on stabilizing land use; and amending existing wildlife laws to fulfill international treaty obligations.