Frost Cracks Research Articles

Fluctuation of temperature inside poplar stems in relation to air temperature

AbstractTwo Euramerican poplar clones, ‘I‐214’and ‘I‐45/51′, were badly damaged by frost cracks in 1981 and 1985. Thermocouples attached to 12 trees showed that clone ‘I‐45/51’was more resistant to winter and late frosts, possibly due to its significantly thicker and rougher bark in comparison to ‘I‐214′.

Origin of Frost Cracks in Stems of Trees

Frost cracks in the stem of living trees are separations along the radial plane. They occur at temperatures below the freezing point of water and result mainly from "frost shrinkage" due to internal drying, that is, freeze-out of cell wall moisture into lumens of wood cells. Wood frost-shrinks more as temperatures are falling. The shrinkage leads to frost cracks mainly because wood tends to shrink more along the growth rings than in the direction of stem diameter. Other factors which contribute to frost cracks are ice layers which grow in the cooling wood, relatively rapid cooling of the stem surface, and expansion of freezing water in waterlogged zones of the stem. The reason why some trees frost-crack while others do not appear to be the notch effect of earlier injuries in the first place, as well as pockets of unusually wet wood in the stem.

北海道大雪山北海平における凍結割れ目多角形土の冬期観測

Large scale frost-fissure polygons are spread at Hokkai-daira plateau, Daisetu volcanic massif, central Hokkaido. In order to ascertain actual frost cracking in the frost-fissures, the authors measured seasonal changes of the width of frost-fissures, ground temperatures and snow cover from September 1984 to September 1985. Main results obtained are as follows; 1. As snow tends to be almost completely blown away by strong wind, snow cover affects the ground temperature only slightly. 2. The annual ground temperature alternations at 1m-depth ranged at least from +0.0_??_1.2°C to -13.6_??_14.8°C, suggesting the existence of permafrost underneath. 3. Horizontal distance changes between the two stakes across frost-fissures from fall 1984 to winter 1985 indicate that the width of frost-fissures increased in winter by 1cm. And frost cracks, about 1cm wide at the surface, occurred by mid-Februauy on the surface of snow and ice which covered or filled in frost-fissures. Therefore, frost-fissure polygons at this site are most likely active. 4. Considering the present climatic conditions of this area, the cross sections of frostfissure and above-mentioned results, we suggest that the frost-fissure polygons at this area are soil-wedge polygons.

Deformation of laminated silt loam due to repeated freezing and thawing cycles

AbstractThe effect of repeated freezing and thawing cycles on an experimentally‐produced laminated silt loam was studied with the purpose of obtaining more insight into the genesis of macro‐ and microstructures observed in the loessic formations of Northwestern Europe.The laminated silt loam was subsequently subjected to 18 cycles of alternate freezing and thawing. The minimum temperature recorded after 11 days of frost was − 7°C at a depth of 5 cm and − 4°C at 29 cm. The underlying sediments, compact loam (except its upper part) and sand, always remained unfrozen. The experiment reproduced a seasonal superficially frozen ground.New structures and microfabrics in the form of vesicles, platy structures, shear planes, and micro‐undulations were created by ice segregation and thawing, mechanical stress and subsequent frost‐creep. The impact of the freezing and thawing cycles is very strong, all the laminae being deformed or broken. Judging by the abundance and the diversity of the structures created, freezing is a more important process than simple drying without frost.As is evidenced by the range in temperature chosen for the experiment and the low number of cycles, these structures do not necessarily require severe climatic conditions to develop, unlike frost cracks or ice wedge casts. They could develop in winter conditions similar to those present today in the French Southern Alps.

Geomorphological conditions in the Dačice Basin and in the northern part of the Novobystřická vrchovina (Highland)

The paper brings it survey of geomorphological conditions in the area under study (south-eastern Bohemia and south-western Moravia, Czechoslovak Socialist Republic). The autbor pays much attention to the considerable influence of neotectonic movements on the carving of the relief. Typicall periglacial phenomena are: cryopediments, cryoplanation terraces, frost cliffs and frost cracks, block fields and boulder streams. Weathering pits and pseudo-lapiès are of Holocene age.

Barrier-zone formation in wounded stems of sweetgum

The response of sweetgum trees (Liquidambarstyraciflua L.) to wounding was examined histologically. Seven stems were wounded artificially (by exposing the cambium or cutting deep into the xylem) or naturally (by fire or by frost cracks). After wounding, the cambium produced an anatomically distinct tissue which limited radial spread of discoloration and decay near the wounds. This tissue was characterized by traumatic gum canals, large amounts of longitudinal parenchyma, thin-walled fiber sclereids, callose deposits, staining of cell walls with phloroglucinol, and a weak or fading Maule reaction for lignin. This tissue extended no more than 60 cm longitudinally above and below the wounds and no more than 20 cm around the stem, less than 50% of the circumference of any tree. Gum canals and associated tissue were an effective barrier to the radial spread of discoloration and decay. Water-soluble extractives from the tissue of the annual ring formed after wounding inhibited growth of the decay fungus, Pleurotussapidus, invitro. This inhibition was not observed with extractives more than 20 cm longitudinally from the wound. These results indicate that the barrier zone formed by sweetgum in response to the stem wounds studied was limited to the vicinity of the wound and may be both an anatomical and chemical barrier. Thus, morphologically distinguishable barrier zones cannot alone account for protection of xylem formed after wounding from discoloration and decay.

Effect of Tree Wrap on the Incidence of Frost Crack in Norway Maple

During the winters of 1970-1971 and 1971-1972, frost cracks developed on Norway maple cv. 'Emerald Queen' planted in a Michigan nursery. Trees in low areas or on poorly drained soils were more frequently injured than those planted on better drained soils. Wrapping trees in November, 1971, with bands of Kraft paper did not reduce the incidence of frost cracks during the 1971-1972 winter.

Entstehung und pedologische Wirkung glaziärer Frostspalten einer norddeutschen Moränenlandschaft

Formation and pedological influence of glacial frostwedges of a moraine landscape in the north of GermanyGlossudal‐soilscapes of West‐Berlin show a net of frost cracks filled with sand. We think that cracks were filled by wind blown sand during the Pommern‐phase of the Weichselglaciation. Later on frost action and sedimentation of aeolian sand changed with each other under periglacial conditions followed by clay migration, mainly under holocene conditions. Sand wedges arise the variability of oecological conditions.

Factors influencing infection and initiation of decay by the Indian paint fungus (Echinodontiumtinctorium) in western hemlock

Sporulation by the Indian paint fungus was maximal during cool, wet periods in the fall. Basidiospores were viable throughout the year, but maximum germination occurred only after temperatures had fallen below 0 °C. It is postulated that infection of western hemlock (Tsugaheterophylla) occurs in spring when a single basidiospore comes in contact with the stub which remains after shade-killed branchlets, about 1 mm in diameter, are broken off at their base. Anatomical studies of branch stub formation showed that this stage is reached around age 40 and that residual stubs must be exposed almost 2 years before they can serve as infection courts. After stub closure, the fungus becomes dormant and can survive in the medullary tissues for up to 50 years or more without causing decay. The possibility is discussed that conditions associated with large branch stubs and other deep-seated injuries, such as logging scars, broken tops, or frost cracks, are responsible for reactivating dormant infections and initiating the decay process. Clarification of the infection mechanism explains observed variations in severity of decay caused by E. tinctorium in different forest associations and provides a simple method, based on host age and stem-ring patterns, for estimating the decay threat in individual trees and stands, without extensive, destructive sampling.

Über glimmer- und feldspatverwitterung sowie entstehung und umwandlung von tonmineralen in rezenten und fossilen Lössböden

In all eight types of loess-soils, two recent chernozems and braunerden (brown forest soils), one syrosem of young Würm age, one chernozem of older Würm age, one braunerde of the last interglacial period, and one earthy braunlehm of the Middle Pleistocene Period, were investigated by polarization and phase-contrast microscopy as well as by the X-ray method. The problem was to determine the contents of primary minerals and clay minerals in order to answer the question as to what extent layer silicates and feldspars > 2 μm play a role in the formation of clay minerals. The results are as follows. 1. (1) In none of the eight soils investigated could a variation of the particle size of minerals in the silt fractions caused by frost cracks by discovered; in particular, no coarse clay formation (2-0.6 μm) explainable by cryoclastic fragmentation could be proved, not even in the syrosem of synsedimentary origin and of young Würm age. 2. (2) In the mechanism of pedochemical formation and transformation of clay minerals, the weathering and transformation of layer silicates > 2 μm plays a dominant role. The percentage of layer silicates declines by 1.2 to 1.8 times as much as the feldspars, independent from the type of soil and the intensity of weathering, respectively. The decline of feldspars amounts to 30% in the braunerde of last-interglacial age and is greater than in recent braunerden; in the rubefied earthy braunlehm of Middle Pleistocene age, the decline of feldspars amounts to 40% as compared to the decline of layer silicates of 45% in the braunerde of last-interglacial age and 75% in the earthy braunlehm, respectively. The weathering of silicates and the pedochemical formation of clay is important in the recent braunerde-chernozem and even in the recent chernozem with primary carbonates, as well as in the chernozem of old Würm age. 3. (3) The pedochemical formation and transformation of clay minerals is characterized to a very large extent by the formation of illites (25–40%) and particularly of montmorillonites (50–60%). Part of the montmorillonites is to be considered as a new formation of the weathering products of the feldspars. It is to be concluded that another part of the montmorillonites is the weathering products of the micas resulting from a transformation through the illite-stage. 4. (4) Compared with the importance of the montmorillonites and illites, the other minerals play an unimportant part in the pedochemical formation and transformation of clay minerals. This holds good also for the vermiculites which are merely present in the coarse and medium (0.6-0.2 μm) clay fraction, and not, however, in the generally dominant fine clay (< 0.2 μm) fraction. It is to be concluded that illites (mostly < 0.2 μm) and vermiculites always > 0.2 μm) are not always formed one after another, but beside each other in the same soil. 5. (5) In none of the loess soils investigated could a further transformation resulting in “Bodenchlorit” be found, not even in the intensively weathered and rubefied earthy braunlehm of Middle Pleistocene age.

Cryogenic processes in the soils of Northern Asia

Cryogenic processes, those occurring in soils below freezing temperatures much of each year, are widespread in northern Asia. The processes result in specific soil properties and the development of unique soil types, subtypes and taxa at lower levels. Two major groups are involved: frostgenic soils and coldgenic soils. In frostgenic soils, the seasonally frozen and thawed layers contact permafrost tables. In coldgenic soils, either the permafrost tables occur below the maximum depths of seasonal freezing and thawing or there is no permafrost. The term “cryogenic soils” should be used to cover both frostgenic and coldgenic soils. Although the rates and intensities of cryogenic processes differ considerably in different parts of northern Asia, the general nature of these processes is similar throughout. This is illustrated by data from investigations of frostgenic meadow-forest soils of the extra-continental forest steppe of the Trans-baikal area of the U.S.S.R. The soils are characterized by processes typical of frostgenic soils: frost heaving, swelling, cryoturbation, thixotropy, vein ice formation and development of platy structure. Frost cracks are very changeable, with annual amplitudes in width on 10–15 cm. Suspensions of humified fine earth periodically enter these cracks and gradually fill them with permeable materials. During downpours, water carrying materials in suspension and solution flows downward through these cracks and then diffuses into the parent material at considerable depth. Thus, an A-C-B profile is developed. Discontinuous layers of organic matter 5–30 cm thick at various depths are characteristic features of these soils. Such layers are thought to originate as a result of the concentration of solutes as the soil freezes and ice lenses form at low temperature gradients.

Frost Cracks and Earth Hummocks at Kosciusko, Snowy Mountains, Australia

Frost cracks and earth hummocks are described from wet, peaty flats underlain by gravels in the Kosciusko area. Their dimensions in relation to the relatively mild climate and insulating snowcover ...

Aplanobacter populi . [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria

Abstract A description is provided for Aplanobacter populi [Xanthomonas populi] . Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On Populus spp. DISEASE: Bacterial canker of poplar. 'Chancre suitant' of Ride. First visible on young branches as slightly swollen areas with superficial cracks from which may ooze a dense, mucous, greyish exudate in sparing. Large cankers may develop at these sites over several seasons, or other organisms may invade and cause rapid death of the distal part of the branch. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Europe (CMI Map 422). Recently reported from East Germany (46, 2843). A different bacteriosis has been reported in Italy (Ride, pers. comm., 1970). TRANSMISSION: The disease can spread rapidly in the direction of the prevailing wind in susceptible plantations (47, 3227), suggesting spread by wind-blown rain splashes. Insects such as the cambium miner, Dendromyza carbonaria , are probably also involved. Dissemination into new areas occurs when infected material is planted. The pathogen gains entry into the plant through wounds, e.g. leaf and stipule scars, insect punctures, and frost cracks.

Frost Cracking in the Colorado Front Range

Frost cracks above timberline in the Colorado Front Range occur in turf-banked lobes and terraces and in other areas where differential frost heaving is locally intense. Crack widths vary seasonall...

Inonotus hispidus . [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria

Abstract A description is provided for Inonotus hispidus . Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: Principally associated with Fraxinus and Malus , but also recorded on Acer, Aesculus, Alnus, Betula, Carya , Crataegus, Euonymus, Fagus, Ficus, Juglans, Liquidambar, Morus, Pistacia, Pyrus, Platanus, Populus, Prunus, Quercus, Robinia, Salix, Schinus, Sophora, Ulmus, Vitis and Zizyphus . DISEASE: Heart rot of ash. The rot is of the general delignifying type, the wood becoming soft and spongy throughout, the decayed wood turning straw to pale yellow brown. In addition to attacking heart wood the pathogen may penetrate living tissues (Nutman, 1929). Young trees may be severely damaged by cankers which distort the stems. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Morocco), Asia (China, Japan, India, Syria, U.S.S.R., West Pakistan), Europe (Belgium, Cyprus, Czechoslovakia, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden); North America (Canada, U.S.A.); South America (? Brazil). TRANSMISSION: By air-borne spores. Stubs of dead branches, frost cracks and wounds, particularly those found in old hedgerow trees, all serve as infection courts.

Détermination de la qualité de l'érable à sucre d'après des signes apparents de carie

In both localities where the dissections were performed, mechanical injuries, frost cracks and large broken branches were found responsible for the entry of most of the extensive defects in the trunk of living sugar maple. Within an injury class, the average volume of cull following large injuries was greater than that following small injuries. A quality classification system is presented and seems appropriate for a cull estimation before cutting.

Packing for preserving foundations from buckling and failure by frost cracks

Packing for preserving foundations from buckling and failure by frost cracks

THE PATTERNED GROUNDS ON THE DAISETSU VOLCANIC GROUP, CENTRAL HOKKAIDÔ

The Daisetsu volcanic group has been formed during the period from early Pleistocene up to Holocene. No records are known of their activities in historic time, though there are fumaroles still emitting sulphurous gases at the bottom of two craters. In the area surveyed, timber line and the limit of pinus pumila are found at the height of 1, 200-1, 800 m. and of 1, 650-2, 100 m. above sea level respectively. They are higher on lee-ward slopes than on wind-ward slopes. Above the limit of pinus pumila, there develop patterned grounds in alpine meadows, fell-fields and barren-fields (Fig. 1). The writer has obsrved patterned grounds at 123 localities in the area from 1957 to 1964, and the results of his investigations are summarized as follows: (1) Among the observed patterned grounds, more than 80% of them develop on wind-ward crest-slopes, about 15% in depressions such as craters, nivation hollows and others, and less than 5 % on flat surfaces. Their lower limits coincide with the limit of pinus pumila at respective localities. (2) Nonsorted patterns are associated with some specific vegetations (Figs. 3 and 6), as physical conditions (thickness of snow cover, micro-climate, soil, groundwater, etc.) control the kind of vegetation and the development of patterns. (3) Processes of the formation of nonsorted polygons or circles are considered to be as follows: (a) During freezing periods, polygonal meshes are at first formed by the net-work of frost cracks due to the contraction of freezing ground surface, then the surface of each mesh is differentially heaved by a growing frost layer in the ground so as to swell up a flat dome. (b) Vegetation takes root first along the margin of earch mesh adjacent to the crack that has suffered least heaving. (c) The fringing vegetation invades gradually from periphery toward the center of each mesh. It is at this stage that frost boils or frost scars are recognizable in polygonal meshes (Fig. 7). (d) As the contraction of freezing ground and the differential heaving of meshed surfaces continue rather rapidly in a short period and contrarily frozen ground thaws very slowly, the ground now thatched with vegetation having intermingled roots is deformed only in the freezing period, thus the cracks widen unilaterally and the swelling up of meshed surfaces is non-reversibly intensified. (e) As these processes progress, the polygonal meshes (nonsorted polygons) transform themselves into frost hummocks (nonsorted nets or circles) entirely covered with dense vegetation. At the same time, the frost cracks grow up as “intervals” between hummocks. The nonsorted patterns as mentioned above develop only on the ground of fine textured soils with little contents of pebbles and gravels. (4) Sorted patterns on gravelly barren fields are formed through the processes as described below. (a) The pebbles and gravels in the soil are brought up to the surface by frost heaving, while the formation of frost cracks and the swelling up of meshed ground surface advance as mentioned above. (b) The pebbles and gravels on the ground surface creep to and fall into frost cracks, and the initial pattern of the sorted polygons and nets, etc., is formed. (c) As thawing of the frozen and already patternrd ground progresses from three sides: that is, from the surface, from the bottom of frozen layer and from the marginal cracks, a differential thaw-down of the meshed ground surface occurs. This causes an increase in the gradient from center to margin, and facilitates the movement of gravels toward the cracks. (d) The cracks widen their spans (as mentioned in 3 a) and are filled with pebbles and gravels by repetition of these processes, and finally well-developed sorted patterns. (5) In thawing season, a slow flowage of water-saturated top soil occurs on the slopes which makes a convex front at its terminal (comparable to the front of a lava flow).

Existence de deux phases periglaciaires, separees par un haut niveau marin, en Vendee

Abstract Two periglacial phases can be recognized on the Vendee coast of France, at Bretignolles. The first phase is represented by a sand-clay matrix in which are included microgranite blocks transported by mudflows from the Saint-Martin-de-Brem massif. Under the flow, the micaschist of the basement complex is locally disaggregated and forms a polygonal soil. These features are preserved by the sand and gravel deposits of the Tyrrhenian II transgression which depressed the shores and bays of the Vendee and Loire coasts of the Atlantic. The later periglacial phase produced garland tongues, V-shaped pockets, and frost cracks in the Tyrrhenian shore deposits.

Estimating Opossum Populations by Marking Young

stands in the beech-maple type forest and in two stands in the oak-hickory type near East Lansing, Michigan. A large proportion of the cavities originated from limb scars in the tree crowns; others were caused by rot, lightning scars, and frost cracks. The most cavities occurred in unmanaged stands of the beech-maple type. A large proportion of cavity entrances in boles above the bases were 2 to 4 in. in diameter. The size of cavities in tree boles as indicated by horizontal crosssection diameters was larger in the unmanaged than in the managed stands. The vertical extent of a cavity was generally proportional to the horizontal diameter. Cavities at bases of trees were common only in beech-maple stands, generally in enlarged bases of large trees. Cavities in boles above the bases were