Flower Fresh Weight Research Articles

Silicon spray affect floricultural traits and leaf elemental nutrient concentrations of Rose ‘Beverly Watson’

Silicon (Si) is looked upon as a non-essential nutrient whose positive effects have been proved on most plant species. This study explored the impact of various types and rates of Si on some plant traits of rose (Rosa hybrida) ‘Beverly Watson’ in a factorial experiment based on a Randomized Complete Design with two treatments and three replications. Three Si sources (calcium silicate, potassium silicate, and sodium silicate) were used as foliar application in five rates (0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 mg L−1) during 10 wks. It was found that Si treatment improved flowering stem length and diameter, petal thickness, flower fresh and dry weight, and days to flower senescence, but it reduced days to full flower opening. Likewise, foliar application of Si increased leaf N, P, K, Ca, and Si content. Si at lower rates improved leaf Cu, Mn, and Fe content, but it reduced them at higher rates.

Flower yield potential of Pyrethrum (<em>Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium</em> L.) under various NPK Levels in the Lower Hills of Uttarakhand, India

Purpose: A favorable environment is available for the cultivation of Pyrethrum in the hilly regions of India, as well as in some mountainous areas of India. In view of the demand for Pyrethrin, it is very necessary to promote the huge cultivation of Pyrethrum. There is no misconception that research work has not been done to promote Pyrethrum, but the data related to the assessment of the right amount of nutrients required for the crop is not available in research related to agrotechnology. If the crop is to be taken as a ratoon crop, then it is very important to estimate the amount of nutrients for single recommendation of crop cultivation. Research Method: A research experiment was conducted in the year 2021 at the CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Research, Centre Purara, Bageshwar (Uttarakhand) to study the flower yield potential of Pyrethrum under various NPK levels in the lower hills of Uttarakhand. The experiment was carried out in Complete Randomized Block Design. The six different levels of NPK (kg ha-1) were taken as treatments, i.e., control, 60:60:20, 80:70:30, 100:80:40, 120:90:50, and 150:100:60. Various plant growth and yield parameters considered in the study include plant height (cm), plant diameter (cm), number of flower heads, fresh flower weight plant-1 (g), dry flower weight plant-1(g), fresh flower yield (kg ha-1), dry flower yield (kg ha-1), Pyrethrin concentration (%) and yield (kg ha-1). Findings: Based on the research findings, it seems that the NPK level of 120:90:50 is the best combination to obtain the highest dry flower yield (310.49 kg ha-1) in the lower hills of Uttarakhand. However, the fresh flower weight obtained was the highest under the NPK level of 100:80:40 i.e., 840.47 kg ha-1, but it’s dry flower yield estimated was 301.93 kg ha-1 which was the second highest yield after 310.49 kg ha-1. This could be due to the difference in moisture levels in fresh flowers at the time of harvesting.Research Limitation: Considering the climate of the hilly regions of Uttarakhand, not much work has been done to assess and standardize the proper amount of nutrients required for Pyrethrum crop cultivation, which needs to be done.Originality/ Value: In the hilly areas of Uttarakhand, farmers are interested in the cultivation of Pyrethrum, but if farmers will adopt this crop cultivation as a ratoon crop, then in such a situation it is absolutely necessary to assess the proper amount of nutrients. This research will prove helpful in promoting the cultivation of Pyrethrum in the hilly areas of Uttarakhand.

Effect of Drip Irrigation and Fertigation Levels on Yield Attributes and Yield of African Marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) during Rabi

A field experiment was carried out at College farm, College of Agriculture, Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University (PJTSAU), Hyderabad, Telangana during rabi season 2022 to study the effect of drip irrigation and fertigation levels on yield attributes and yield of marigold. The results revealed that the drip irrigation scheduled at 1.2 Epan recorded significantly higher number of flowers per plant (55.3), flower diameter (5.8 cm), flower fresh weight per plant (557.2 g), flower dry weight per plant (101.9 g) and flower yield (12.11 t ha-1) than 1.0 Epan and 0.8 Epan. Whereas among the fertigation levels, 125% recommended dose of NK recorded significantly higher number of flowers per plant (53.7), flower diameter (5.6 cm), flower fresh weight per plant (538.4 g), flower dry weight per plant (92.8 g) and flower yield (11.48 t ha-1) than 100%RDF and 125%RDF.

Performance Assessment of Scented Field Roses in Open Field Cultivation: A Case Study in Coimbatore, India

A field experiment to evaluate the performance of ten scented field roses in terms of growth and floral parameters under open field condition was carried out at Botanical Garden, Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore during the year 2022-2023. Since there is a major lacuna in variety of scented field roses for cultivation in farmer’s field, the present study was undertaken to assess suitable variety for commercial cultivation under Coimbatore condition. The field experiment was carried out using Randomized Block Design (RBD) with ten treatments (Arka Sukanya, Arka Parimala, Bourbon rose type 1, Bourbon Rose type 2, Pusa Alpana, Rose Sherbet, Scent Pink, Damask rose type 1, Damask rose type 2, Andhra Red) and three replications. Results indicate a significance difference between the varieties for growth, flowering and yield characters. Experimental data revealed that the maximum plant height (68.92 cm), maximum number of shoots per plant (8.21), maximum leaves per plant (410.50), stem girth (6.28 cm), Highest chlorophyll content (58.1), Least number days for flower bud initiation (31.05), Diameter of fully opened flower (5.89 cm) and fresh flower weight (3.59 g) were seen in Bourbon rose type 1. Bourbon rose type 2 recorded maximum number of flowers per plant (41.12) and Andhra red rose recorded maximum number of petals per flower (94.89) among the evaluated varieties.

Influence of SA, GA3 and Pinching on Growth and Flowering in Verbena

A field experiment was conducted to find out effect of salicylic acid (SA), GA3, pinching and their interaction on the growth and flowering attributes of verbena × hybrida. Three concentration each of GA3 (100,150 and 200 ppm) and SA (100, 150 and 200 ppm) was foliar sprayed at 21 days after transplanting to run-off stage and pinching was done at 40 days with three replications set in Randomized Block Design. Pinching treatment recorded significantly maximum no. of primary branches/plant, stem diameter, fresh weight and dry weight of leaves, fresh leaf biomass, leaf area, flower longevity, fresh weight of flower, no. of spikes/plant and peduncle length. However, no. pinching treatment recorded maximum plant height, early bud initiation and early flowering. Spraying of GA3 100 ppm resulted in early bud initiation. GA3 150 ppm recorded fresh weight of leaves, fresh leaf biomass and bud cluster diameter. However, maximum plant height, leaf area, no. of spikes/plant and peduncle length was observed with GA3 at 200 ppm. Among various doses of salicylic acid, SA 100 ppm recorded maximum stem diameter. Early flowering, maximum fresh and dry weight of flower was seen with SA 150 ppm. SA 200 ppm resulted in maximum no. of primary branches/plant and flower diameter. Significant effect of interaction between pinching and plant growth chemicals (GA3 and SA) was observed in most of the growth and flowering attributes.

Role of homobrassinolide, abscisic acid, and 6-benzylamino purine on delaying flower senescence in Gladiolus grandiflora

A study was conducted to investigate the effects of homobrassinolide (HBL), abscisic acid (ABA) and 6-benzylamino purine (BAP) on the post-harvest life of 2 Gladiolus grandiflora cultivars, snow princess and nova lux. Different concentrations of HBL, ABA and BAP were applied to cut flowers. The experimental results showed that ABA and BAP treatments significantly increased post-harvest life in snow princess and nova lux cultivars compared to untreated flowers. However, HBL treatment was unsuccessful in delaying senescence in gladiolus. Furthermore, ABA and BAP treatments were more effective in delaying senescence in the nova lux cultivar than in the snow princess cultivar. Vase solutions containing BAP (500 M) and ABA (10 M) were the most efficient in extending the life of the cut floral spike of the nova lux variety (10 and 9 days respectively) followed by the snow princess variety (8 and 7 days respectively). Increasing fresh weight of flowers, vase solution uptake and membrane integrity along with a decrease in pH, malondialdehyde content, and lipoxygenase (LOX) activity prolonged flowers' post-harvest life. In terms of the post-harvest life of G. grandiflora, BAP outperformed ABA in improving the flower longevity of Gladiolus by maintaining higher physiological and biochemical stability in petals.

Effect of Tryptophan and Glutamic Acid on Morphological Traits of Iranian and Afghan Saffron

In order to investigate the effect of amino acids tryptophan and glutamic acid on the morphological traits of saffron medicinal plant, a factorial experiment was conducted in the form of a randomized complete block design in three replications in 2018 in the research farm of Zanjan University. Experimental treatments include three genotypes (Iranian, Afghani 1 and Afghani 2) as the main treatment and amino acid tryptophan at two levels (1 and 2 mM) and glutamic acid at two levels (1 and 2 mM) as secondary treatments. They were considered as witnesses. The results showed that tryptophan and glutamic acid treatments had a significant effect (P ≤ 0.01) on most of the investigated traits including number of flowers, dry weight of flowers, vegetative body. The highest content of number of flowers and dry weight of flowers were observed, respectively, 34.6 and 37.36 mg of dry weight. Also, the performance traits of flower fresh weight, stigma dry weight, showed significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) under the treatment of two amino acids. The maximum yield of phenol and flavonoid in 2 mM tryptophan concentration was 0.35 and 0.026 mg/g/ha, respectively, and the lowest yield in 1 mM glutamic treatment was 0.34 and 0.02 mg/g/ha, respectively.
 In total, different levels of tryptophan and glutamic acid can have an effective role in improving the morphological traits and production of this product. The use of 1 mM glutamic acid to produce the maximum vegetative body of the plant, the treatment of 1 and 2 mM of both amino acids to improve physiological indicators and 1 mM of glutamic acid for the performance of secondary metabolites is desirable and recommended for the purpose.

Exogenous Application of Growth Regulators Improves the Growth and Quality of Dahlia variabilis L.

Dahlia (Dahlia variabilis L.), a bulb crop sold as cut flower, garden ornamental/potted plant, becomes a popular cut flower in the world. This experiment was designed to study the effects of foliar applied gibberellic acid, zinc, ascorbic acid, and thiamine on the growth and flower attributes of dahlia. The study was conducted under greenhouse conditions at the Floriculture Research Area, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan. There were thirteen treatment with three levels each; gibberellic acid, zinc sulphate, ascorbic acid, and thiamine. First, foliar application was done at vegetative stage (after 45 d of transplantation) and second, at the flowering stage. Application of gibberellic acid at 100 ppm significantly improved plant height (92.67 cm). Application of zinc at 0.50% produced the maximum number of flowers (28.47), diameter of flower (100.19 mm), and fresh weight of flower (11.16 g). Foliar application of thiamine increased nutrient accumulation in leaves of dahlia. The nitrogen contents (4.43 %) increased to maximum in response to treatment comprising ascorbic acid, whereas phosphorus content (1.41 mg g-1) and potassium contents (19.45 mg g-1) were at maximum in response to thiamine. The highest chlorophyll a (4.37 mg g-1) and b (2.04 mg g-1) contents were recorded in treatment comprising thiamine at 150 ppm. The highest carbohydrate contents (35.14%) were recorded in zinc application response. Application of thiamine significantly reduced the days of flowering and flower diameter. Overall, it can be recommended that application of thiamine at 150 ppm is more responsive to improve the growth and quality of dahlia flower as compared to gibberellic acid, zinc, and ascorbic acid.

The Effect of Application of Goat Stage And TSP Fertilizer on The Growth and Production of (Chrysantemum morifolium R.)

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of goat fertilizer and TSP fertilizer on the growth and yield of chrysanthemum (Chrysantenum morifolium R.), conducted at the green house of Pudak Lestari Agrotourism, Pancasari Village, Sukasada District, Buleleng Regency, Bali, from May to in August 2022. This study used a Randomized Block Design (RBD) consisting of 2 factors arranged factorially. The first factor tested was goat manure (K), which consisted of 4 dose levels, namely: K0 = 0 tons/ha, K1 = 15 tons/ha, K2 = 30 tons/ha, K3 = 45 tons/ha while the second factor was TSP (T) fertilizer consisting of 4 dose levels, namely: T0 = 0 kg/ha, T1 = 175 kg/ha, T2 = 350 kg/ha, T3 = 525 kg/ha, each of which was repeated 3 times so that there are 48 trial plots. The research results showed that the interaction between goat manure and TSP fertilizer had no significant effect on all observed variables. Treatment of goat manure had a significant effect only on leaf area, flower diameter, long weight of flower stalks, fresh weight of economic flowers and other variables had no significant effect. The highest economic fresh weight of flowers was obtained from goat manure at a dose of 45 tons ha-1, namely 48.25 g, an increase of 23.97% when compared to no goat manure, namely 38.92 g. The TSP fertilizer treatment obtained the highest plant height and flower diameter in the TSP fertilizer treatment at a dose of 525 kg ha-1, namely 12.67 cm and 10.18 cm compared to that without TSP fertilizer application, namely 10.71 cm and 9.40 cm.

Effect of Chrysanthemum Plants to Artificial Defoliation and Disbudding on Growth and Yield

The market outlook for chrysanthemum flowers is extremely optimistic, as domestic and international consumer demand has increased over the past five years. The development of chrysanthemum plants is anticipated to have a positive effect on the region's employment opportunities, economic growth, and service sector growth. Along with the increasing intensity of chrysanthemum cultivation in various regions, more in-depth research on chrysanthemum flowers is required to improve quality and added value, as well as to utilize the potential of locally available resources that are simple for farmers to apply and have a significant impact on improvement. The majority of chrysanthemum cultivation business actors are small farmers. Chrysanthemum plant technology is distinct from other horticultural crops, requiring special maintenance such as Disbudding, the addition of artificial light, artificial defoliation, and the erection of plant enforcement nets. The research method employs the Factorial Group Random Design, with the first factor being artificial defoliation including: no defoliation, defoliation at 30 dap, and defoliation at 60 dap, and the second factor being disbudding including: no disbudding, disbudding at 60 dap, and disbudding at 90 dap. The results demonstrated that the interaction between artificial defoliation and disbudding had a significant effect on flower stalk weight but no effect on other variables. The treatment of leaf defoliation had significant to very significant effects on all observed variables, with the exception of the weight of flower stalks, which was unaffected. While the disbudding treatment has a significant effect on all observed variables. The interaction between leaf defoliation at 30 dap and disbudding at 60 dap resulted in the heaviest average flower stalk weight of 93.58 grams. Artificial defoliation at 30 dap was able to increase the yield of economically viable fresh flower weight by 8.09 percent compared to when defoliation was not performed. The 60 dap disbudding treatment was able to increase the yield of fresh flower weight by 9.25% when compared to the control.
 

Neoagaro-oligosaccharides Improve the Postharvest Flower Quality and Vase Life of Cut Rose ‘Gaoyuanhong’

Rose is among the most important cut flower crops worldwide. The vase life is an important indicator of cut rose quality. The composition of the vase solution directly affects vase life. Neoagaro-oligosaccharides (NAOS) are degraded seaweed-derived polysaccharides that constitute a group of compounds with small molecular weight and good water solubility. Oligosaccharide treatment can extend the postharvest longevity of certain types of cut flowers; however, little information is available on the utility of NAOS for preservation of cut rose flowers. To explore the effects of NAOS on the longevity and quality of cut flowers of rose ‘Gaoyuanhong’, 100 mg·L−1 NAOS alone and in combination with 10 g·L−1 sucrose were incorporated in the vase solution. Distilled water was used as the control. Physiological indicators, comprising maximum flower diameter, fresh weight, water balance, vase life, bacteria number in the vase solution, and hormone contents of the outer petals, were determined in fresh cut flowers and analyzed. Compared with the control, 100 mg·L−1 NAOS treatment increased the maximum flower diameter (mean 8.21 cm), induced the maximum rates of change in flower diameter and cut flower fresh weight, maintained the best water balance, significantly extended the vase life to 16 days, and reduced the number of bacteria in the vase solution. The abscisic acid content of the outer petals in the control and 100 mg·L−1 NAOS treatments were significantly lower than that of the other treatments on day 9. The results showed that NAOS is useful to improve the postharvest quality and extend the vase life of cut rose flowers, and might contribute to the development of novel alternative preservatives for the cut rose industry.

Assessment of genetic variability, heritability and genetic advance of Chrysanthemum

An experiment was conducted to study genetic variability, heritability and genetic advance among twenty varieties of chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) at the College Farm, College of Horticulture, Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, SDAU, Jagudan during 2020-21. A wide variation in performance of the varieties were recorded for various growth, flowering, yield and quality parameters and results shows that magnitude of the phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) was higher than genetic coefficient of variance (GCV). High GCV and PCV was recorded for fresh weight of flower followed by number of leaves per plant, number of flowers per plant, number of primary branches, shelf life, yield of flowers per plant and yield of flowers per plot. High heritability along with high genetic advance as per cent of mean was observed for number of leaves per plant, days to full bloom, number of flowers per plant, yield of flowers per plant and yield of flowers per ha. Further, these characters could be exploited for improvement through breeding programme.

The effect of foliar application of amino acids on some nutritional properties, antioxidant capacity and some other physiologic parameters of African marigold (Tagetes erecta L.), Taishan ‘Yellow’ and ‘Orange’

African marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) is one of the most well-known ornamental, medicinal and edible flowers in the world. A factorial experiment based on completely randomized design with 20 treatments in 3 replications, 60 plots and 5 plants per plot were conducted in order to investigate the effect of amino acids on growth, nutritional parameters and antioxidant capacity in African marigold. Experimental treatments included two cultivars of African marigold (‘Yellow’ and ‘Orange’) and foliar application of three amino acids (arginine, glutamine and proline) each one at three levels (100, 500 and 1000 μM). Distilled water was used as control. The results showed that the application of amino acids increased plant height, display life, fresh weight and dry matter of flower, leaf total chlorophyll and petal carotenoid compared to the control in both African marigold cultivars. Petal protein content and malondialdehyde (MDA) were not affected by the above treatments, but the use of amino acids, especially arginine and proline, increased proline and calcium, zinc and iron in the petals of both African marigold cultivars. Treatments of 100 μM arginine and 1000 μM proline induced the highest vitamin C in both African marigold cultivars. In ‘Orange’ cultivar, the highest enzyme activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) belonged to 1000 μM proline and the highest peroxidase (POD) activity belonged to two treatments of 100 μM arginine and 1000 μM proline. In ‘Yellow’ cultivar, all three levels of arginine and proline together with 1000 μM glutamine significantly increased SOD and POD activity compared to other treatments. Also, the highest APX enzyme activity was recorded for 100 μM arginine. The results of the present study showed that external application of amino acids, especially arginine and proline, improved the nutritional properties of both African marigold cultivars by increasing the activity of antioxidants.

Lemon grass essential oil improves Gladiolus grandiflorus postharvest life by modulating water relations, microbial growth, biochemical activity, and gene expression

Gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflorus Andrews) is a high-valued bulbous cut flower. However, the shorter postharvest life of the gladiolus, limits its marketing and commercial value. In the present investigation, the effect of lemon grass (LG) essential oil as an antimicrobial agent was studied towards increasing the vase life of gladiolus. The results revealed that as compared to control (distilled water), treatment with a lower concentration of 5 µL L−1 LG essential oil prolonged the vase life of gladiolus up to 11 days (d). Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) observation indicated that the sample treated with 5 µL L−1 LG essential oil showed intact vasculature, suggesting reduced microbial blockage at the stem end which was further corroborated by microbial count. Biochemical analysis suggested an increased level of total soluble sugars, carotenoid content, lower MDA accumulation, and higher activity of antioxidant enzymes in LG treated flowers. Moreover, transcripts levels of genes associated with senescence viz., GgCyP1 and GgERS1a were downregulated, while expression of GDAD1 and antioxidant genes such as GgP5C5, GgPOD 1, GgMnSOD, and GgCAT1 were upregulated in LG treated cut spikes as compared to control. Among various treatments we have concluded that, the vase life of the gladiolus cut spike was improved along with the relative fresh flower weight and diameter of flower at the lower dose of 5 µL L−1 LG oil in the vase solution. Thus, LG oil as an eco-friendly agent has the potential to extend the postharvest life of cut flowers.

Effect of varieties and pinching days on growth and yield attributes of African marigold (Tagetes erecta L.)

From June to August 2021, a field experiment was carried out at the College of Natural Resource Management, Puranchaur-19, Kaski to examine the effects of pinching on the vegetative growth and yield characteristics of African marigold (Tagetes erecta L.). Two major varieties, Karma-666 and Karma-555, were evaluated in the experiment with three different dates of pinching (Control, 20 DAT, and 40 DAT), which were set up in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with four replications. According to the findings, at 5% level of significance, no significant difference was found in the interaction effect between growth and floral characters. Karma-555 showed greater plant spread (34.77 cm) and more branches per plant (13.73) than Karma-666. Additionally, Karma-555 was found to have a higher number of flowers plant-1 (39.10) and flower yield plant-1 (335.77 g). However, Karma-666 had significantly (P <0.001) high fresh flower weight (10.51 g) and flower diameter (7.18 cm). Plants pinched at 20DAT were found to be the most effective for enhancing vegetative growth parameters and flower yield.

Alteration of Flower Yield and Phytochemical Compounds of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) by Application of Different Light Qualities and Growth Regulators

Saffron is the world’s most coveted spicy plant that has medicinal value. Currently, due to diverse types of difficulties in growing this plant outdoor, the tendency to produce it indoor has been increased. Optimized indoor conditions for growing saffron plants is not fully determined so far. This study was conducted to investigate the interactive effects of two plant growth regulators (PGRs), including gibberellic acid (GA3) and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and four light recipes, including white, monochromatic blue, monochromatic red, and a combination of 50% red and 50% blue on the flower yield and phytochemical components (such as crocin, picrocrocin and safranal) in stigmas of indoor-grown saffron. The results showed that exogenous GABA application and combined red and blue LED lights enhanced the performance of saffron flowers in terms of the number of flowers (up to 1.97 per corm) as well as the fresh and dry weight of flowers and stigmas. In saffron, the concentration of three major secondary metabolites is of great importance since it determines its commercial, pharmaceutical quality. GABA induced saffron’s chemical ingredients toward the phytochemicals safranal (up to 5.03%) and picrocrocin (up to 15.8%), while GA3 induced them toward the carotenoid pigment crocin (up to 25.1%). In conclusion, the application of GABA with a combination of red and blue lights enhanced the production of high-quality stigmas and positively affected the yield of flowers in saffron plants.

The Effect of Bio-Phophate Fertilizer at Lowlands on The Growth and Results of Cauliflower in Polybags

This study aims to examine the Effect of Bio-Phosphate Fertilizer Application in the Lowlands on the Growth and Yield of Flower Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. Botrytis L.) in Polybags. This research was carried out at SMK-PP Negeri Sembawa Kec. Sembawa, Banyuasin Regency, Palembang City, South Sumatra Province. This research was conducted from December 2020 to March 2021. The method used in this study was the experimental method (experiment), using a randomized block design (RBD) with 5 (five) treatments and 5 (five) groups/replications. Each experimental unit consisted of 10 plants so that the number of plants studied was 250 plants. Based on the research results, it can be concluded that the application of Bio-phosphate fertilizer has a good effect on the growth and yield of cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. Botrytis L.) in polybags. The application of Bio Phosphate fertilizer had a good effect on the growth of plant height and number of leaves with a fertilizer dose of 15 g/polybag, the best plant height was 36.69 cm, and the number of leaves was 22.20. The application of Bio Phosphate fertilizer had a good effect on the yield of flower diameter, fresh weight of plants and fresh weight of flowers per plant with a fertilizer dose of 30 g/polybag obtained a flower diameter of 91.56 mm, plant fresh weight of 236.50 g and flower fresh weight per plant of 90.30 g.

Flower colour and antioxidant activity of violas (Viola × wittrockiana) as edible flowers

ABSTRACT Edible flowers represent rich sources of nutritional and phytochemical compounds. Violas (Viola × wittrockiana) have been confirmed to be non-toxic as food products. Based on the wide variety of flower colours, major differences may exist in antioxidant concentrations among flowers of different colours. This study examined the differences in concentrations of antioxidant components in viola flowers of eight different colours: white, red, dark red, orange, yellow, light blue, light purple, and dark purple. Flower fresh weight, petal length, petal colour (measured using a chroma metre), ascorbic acid concentration, total anthocyanin concentration, total polyphenol concentration, and DPPH radical-scavenging activity were analysed. The violas used in this study had a wide range of colours, with different lightness and chroma values. Ascorbic acid, total anthocyanin, and total polyphenol concentrations were higher in red, dark red, and dark purple flowers. In contrast, these concentrations were lower in white and light-coloured flowers. The DPPH radical-scavenging activity was also lower in white and light-coloured flowers. Therefore, red, dark red, and dark purple flowers rather than white and light-coloured flowers of violas represent rich sources of antioxidant components and their consumption may provide various health benefits.

Growth and production response in saffron-chickpea intercropping under different irrigation regimes

The present study aimed to evaluate saffron production in intercropping with chickpea under different irrigation regimes. The experiment was a split plot based on a randomized complete block design with three replications during two years (2018–19 and 2019–20). The main plot consisted of two irrigation regimes [i.e. one-time and conventional irrigations], and the sub-plot included eight planting ratios [i.e. saffron mono-crop (C1), chickpea mono-crop (C2), 100% saffron + 50% chickpea (C3) and 100% saffron + 100% chickpea (C4) as additive ratios, and 1:1 (C5), 2:2 (C6), 2:1(C7), and 3:1(C8) saffron:chickpea as replacement ratios]. Based on the results, the effect of the irrigation regime was not significant on flower number, fresh weight of flower, and dried stigma yield of saffron. In intercropping ratios, the highest flower number (141.5 ± 4.26 m−2), fresh weight of flower (108.22 ± 3.4 g m−2), and dried stigma yield (4.1 ± 0.01 kg h−1) were observed in saffron mono-crop and approximately equaled by C3 treatment. The conventional irrigation regime increased the pod and seed numbers, the grain and biological yields, and the harvest index of chickpea. In the intercropping ratios, the maximum aforementioned traits were obtained by chickpea mono-crop. The maximum total land equivalent ratio (1.86) was obtained by the C3 treatment, which showed an intercropping advantage as compared to mono-crop. In summary, the C3 treatment showed the same effects as the mono-crop treatment on the saffron parameters, therefore, this treatment could be considered a proper alternative combination as compared to mono-crop for improving environmental resources absorption and soil fertility.

Developmental, Phytochemical and Enzymatic Changes in Pot Marigold (Calendula officinalis L.) cvs. Hybrid and French with Salicylic Acid (SA) and Polyamine Spermidine (SP) Foliar Spray

Marigolds (Calendula officinalis L.) are valuable in ornamentation, human food, and other uses; to enhance productivity, plant growth regulators produce stimulatory effects, including salicylic acid (SA) and spermidine (SP), but there is a lack of scientific evidence about such effects in marigolds. The study assessed, under greenhouse conditions, changes in physico-chemical parameters, enzymatic activity, and bioactive compounds of marigold cvs. Hybrid and French marigolds were sprayed of SA (1 and 2 mM) and SP (2 and 3 mM) and compared to control (pure water). The SA at 2 mM improved leaf length (8.20 cm), flower height and diameter (5.32, 8.28 cm), flower fresh and dry weight (14.30, 1.5 g), and the maximum number of flower petals (55) in ‘Hybrid’. Similarly, 2 mM SA gave the maximum number of leaves (40.71) and stem thickness (5.76 mm) in ‘French’, but 3 mM SP promoted the maximum plant height in ‘Hybrid’. Superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase activities increased in ‘Hybrid’ with 2 mM SA; with this SA dose, ‘Hybrid’ had higher contents of total phenolic compounds (68.34 mg GAE g−1), antioxidants (77%), carotenoids (110 mg 100 g−1), and flavonoids (67.5 mg RE g−1) than the control. The best dose for improving growth in both marigold varieties was 2 mM SA.