Freedom Of Economic Activity Research Articles

Ewolucja podstaw normatywnych wolności gospodarczej w Polsce w XX wieku

The Republic of Poland shall guarantee the freedom of business activity. It constitutes the foundation of a market economy. Restrictions on the freedom of economic activity may be imposed only by means of statute or when the public interest is threatened. The purpose of this article is to analyse the evolution of business activity freedom in Poland in the 20th century. The author presents normative solutions in the field of economic freedom in the interwar period, the Polish People’s Republic, after 1989, and after Poland’s accession to the European Union. The article also includes the approach to economic freedom in legal doctrine. The paper also shows content elements of freedom of business activity in doctrinal meaning.

Соотношение принципа свободы договора и свободы экономической деятельности

Соотношение принципа свободы договора и свободы экономической деятельности

The Role of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation in Ensuring the Freedom of Labour Contract Parties

In connection with the 25th anniversary of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the study of the role of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, including in the field of labour law, is particularly relevant. This article analyzes the activities of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation on constitutional control over the observance of freedom in the sphere of labor, the freedom of an employee and employer as parties to the labor contract. The legal positions elaborated by the court concerning the permissible restriction of rights and freedoms of a person and a citizen, which by virtue of their general nature can also be applied when assessing the admissibility of restriction by law of employee and employer freedom in the course of an employment contract, are studied. Some ordinances and definitions of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, which, in the author’s opinion, explain in detail the current constitutional and legal meaning of the labor legislation norms in terms of the freedom of labor and freedom of economic activity. The focus of the article is on the latest acts of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation. It is concluded that the freedom of employee and employer as parties to an employment contract cannot be considered properly secured without constitutional control activities.

Wspieranie rozwoju działalności gospodarczej w ujęciu zasad i wartości

Ustawa Prawo przedsiębiorców obejmuje swoim zakresem normowania zasady podejmowania, wykonywania i zakończenia działalności gospodarczej na terytorium Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, w tym prawa i obowiązki przedsiębiorców oraz zadania organów władzy publicznej. I choć materia ustawy nie różni się znacząco od regulacji ustawy o swobodzie działalności gospodarczej, to należy zwrócić uwagę na sposób ujęcia zakresu normowania ustawy Prawo przedsiębiorców. Materia objęta regulacją tej podstawowej dla stosunków gospodarczych ustawy osadzona została w wartościach prawnych o zasadniczym znaczeniu dla przedsiębiorców, a ujęte w niej zasady (praworządności, pewności prawa, wolność działalności gospodarczej) służą określonym celom: zagwarantowaniu praw przedsiębiorców oraz zapewnieniu ciągłego rozwoju działalności gospodarczej w warunkach wolnej konkurencji. Zasady te podkreślają status przedsiębiorców, znaczenie gospodarczych wolności i praw podmiotowych. Analiza przepisów ustawy w kontekście realizacji celu określonego przez ustawodawcę jako „ciągły rozwój działalności gospodarczej” prowadzi do wniosku, że to ustawowe określenie zachowań administracji publicznej mieści się w znanej i opisanej w doktrynie kategorii prawnej, jakim jest „wspieranie przedsiębiorczości”. Przy czym są to zarówno szczegółowe zadania organów administracji publicznej związane są z realizacją typowych funkcji administracji w działalności gospodarczej, jak i ogólne normy postępowania w stosunkach z przedsiębiorcami.

Zasady postępowania w sprawach z zakresu działalności gospodarczej unormowane w ustawie Prawo przedsiębiorców

Ustawa z 6 marca 2018 r. Prawo przedsiębiorców (u.p.p.) normuje zasady związane z podejmowaniem i wykonywaniem działalności gospodarczej zdecydowanie inaczej, niż czyniła to poprzednio obowiązująca ustawa z 2 lipca 2004 r. o swobodzie działalności gospodarczej. Przepisy dotyczące postępowania w relacjach między administracją a przedsiębiorcami stanowią w dużej mierze nową materię publicznego prawa gospodarczego. Zasady procesowe zamieszczone są w rozdz. I: Przepisy ogólne i w rozdz. III: Załatwianie spraw z zakresu działalności gospodarczej. Niektóre z zasad powtarzają zasady ogólne postępowania administracyjnego unormowane w k.p.a. (por. art. 28 u.p.p. i art. 7b k.p.a.). W ten sposób Prawo przedsiębiorców przenosi na płaszczyznę publicznego prawa gospodarczego podstawowe zasady (wartości, idee) Konstytucji RP (np. art. 12). Ustawa ta normuje też szereg nowych zasad, w tym takie, które wyrażają idee ujęte po raz pierwszy w formę obowiązujących norm prawnych. Szczególnym przykładem jest zasada zaufania do przedsiębiorcy (art. 10 ust. 1); wyraża ona nowy standard w relacjach administracja publiczna– przedsiębiorca. Unormowanie tej zasady wzmacnia gwarancje procesowe dla przedsiębiorców. Mimo że zasady postępowania unormowane w Prawie przedsiębiorców nie stanowią spójnego zbioru, to – z uwagi na ich uniwersalny charakter oraz rangę i miejsce tej ustawy w obszarze publicznego prawa gospodarczego – mogą służyć za bazę normatywną proceduralnego publicznego prawa gospodarczego.

The Law-Giver’s Policy in Matters of the Undertaking, Performing and Terminating Business Activity

In the article, the author defined what objectives and values the Polish law-giver is guided by in the field of regulations regarding public economic law. He referred to both the Freedom of Business Activity Act and the Entrepreneurship Law Act, as well as to the relation of the economic law with EU law and the Polish Constitution. This study also considers the possibility of ensuring equality for economic entities and freedom of economic activity.

IMPACT OF INNOVATIONS ON THE PRODUCT MARKET COMPETITIVE DEVELOPMENT


 
 
 Competitive product markets are characterized by aiming at complete consumers’ needs satisfaction, flexible market price making, freedom of economic activity and entrepreneurship, free entry and exit from a market, fair trading and business practices etc. The highest values for the companies functioning at the competitive markets are consumers and consumer needs. Accordingly, all the decisions related to the companies’ activity are being taken not based on the entrepreneurs’ ambitions, but from the perspective of the consumer as the agent of future income and profits. One of the essential characteristics of the markets competitive development is ability of the market players to optimize costs, minimize prices, and improve product quality for the maximum consumer satisfaction. Innovations are one of the means for providing competitive development path. However, the essence of innovations is not only introducing something new, some quality changes of the entrepreneurship activity. This economic category may manifest itself as a barrier for entry into product markets, and may cause emerging of innovative monopolies that eventually influence competitive development. Presented article is dedicated to the outcomes of innovative activity on the marketplace. Interconnections between the competitive environment and innovativeness are being investigated, and as the result, innovativeness is proven a method of overcoming competitive pressure, achieving competitive advantages at the market. It is determined that innovativeness depends on the companies’ size, as the financial capacity for innovations and availability of the labour potential concentrated in the innovative area are higher within big companies. As well the need for innovativeness as the mean for attaining competitive advantages depends both on the industry type and the product market characteristics, where a company is functioning, as there are no needs for competitive advantages at monopolistic markets. Innovations may also appear in natural monopolies as the result of introducing some regulatory policies. Also the causality between companies’ pursuance of uniqueness, the level of national competitiveness – and the innovations is being investigated, as well as the time lag between introduction of innovations and gaining some competitive advantages at the market. Understanding mutual influences of innovations and product markets competitive development is the clue for taking proper decisions by regulatory bodies with respect to markets development. Appearance of innovative monopolies aggravate the demand for regulatory bodies control over product markets development with the purpose of preventing excessive use of the market power by innovative monopolies.
 
 

Kilka uwag na temat przepisów ogólnych projektu ustawy Prawo przedsiębiorców

SOME REMARKS ON THE GENERAL PROVISIONS OF THE DRAFT ACT — ENTREPRENEURS’ LAWThe so-called “Constitution for Business,” covering four laws, introduces several new solutions in relation to the Act on the freedom of economic activity. They are visible, among others, in the general provisions of the act — Entrepreneurs’ Law. New solutions include the so-called unrecorded economic activity related to small-scale operations by natural persons.

Minimalizacja ryzyka jednoosobowej działalności gospodarczej w kontekście uregulowań prawnych w Polsce

W świetle ustawy o swobodzie działalności gospodarczej osoby fizyczne mogą prowadzić działalność gospodarczą jednoosobowo, występując wówczas samodzielnie jako przedsiębiorcy. Instytucja ta, jako najpowszechniejsza forma podejmowania działalności gospodarczej w Polsce, wypełnia znaczny fragment przestrzeni rynku pracy. Wymagania formalne prowadzenia jednoosobowej działalności gospodarczej są właściwie minimalne. Forma ta wydaje się wygodna dla początkującego przedsiębiorcy. Jednakże rozrastająca się jednoosobowa działalność gospodarcza może nieść za sobą szereg ryzyk prawnych bądź finansowych. W artykule wskazano na węzłowe problemy związane z funkcjonowaniem jednoosobowej działalności gospodarczej w kontekście uregulowań prawnych w Polsce. Jako przykłady minimalizacji ryzyka zaproponowano rozwiązania w postaci mediacji, oceny wiarygodności finansowej kontrahenta, zabezpieczenia wierzytelności oraz przekształcenia w spółkę prawa handlowego.

The official veterinarian and his role in the supervision of experiments on animals in the Polish legislation

Polish legislation regulating the supervision of animals used for scientific purposes has undergone significant changes in the last several years. The most important achievement was delegating the supervision of laboratory animal breeding, supply and experiments to veterinarians employed by the Veterinary Inspectorate. Initially, pursuant to the first regulations dating back to 1928, veterinarians were not assigned any role in the supervision of animals used for scientific purposes. Minor modifications in this respect were introduced in 1960. The first supervisory powers were introduced by the Act of 1997 involving approvals to be issued by veterinarians in compliance with the legal requirements of entities carrying out experiments on animals and entities breeding laboratory animals. The Act of 2005 on experiments on animals did not bring about significant changes in the powers of veterinarians supervising animals used for scientific purposes. The above-mentioned legal acts did not provide the Veterinary Inspectorate with greater rights to supervise animals used for scientific purposes. When the Act on Freedom of Economic Activity was amended (in 2007), the supervision of economic operators became particularly difficult or sometimes even impossible. The Act on the Protection of Animals Used for Scientific or Educational Purposes that was passed in Poland on 15 January 2015 is a legal act that delegates the right to comprehensive supervision of animals used for scientific purposes to one public authority, namely, the Veterinary Inspectorate.

Between exercising of public powers and economic activity. The latest findings on the notion of entrepreneur made in the process of judicial review of the decision of the President of the Office of Competition and Consumer Protection

Aim: There is no doubt that public authorities may be directly or indirectly involved in economic activity. A traditional way of distinguish state activity which is not subject to the rules of the market is to decide when the state acts as public authority. In case of state activity two category of situations should be distinguished: these where the state is engaged in an economic activity (sphere of dominium) and these when the state acts by exercising of public powers (sphere of imperium). In the opinion of the author of the article, the distinction between imperium and dominium is still relevant. According to the Competition and Consumer Protection Act of February 16, 2007, an entrepreneur is inter alia natural and legal person, as well as an organisational unit without a legal status to which legislation grants legal capacity, organising or providing public utility services which do not constitute economic activity in the meaning of the provisions on freedom of economic activity. The President of the Office of Competition and Consumer Protection found that public authorities exercising their administrative powers (sphere of imperium) may be classified as entrepreneurs. In the recent decisions which were subject of judicial review the President of UOKiK decided that the National Health Fund – a state authority responsible for organization and management of health care services in Poland – is an entrepreneur in the meaning of the Polish law (act on competition and consumer protection). The aim of this article is to answer the question whether competition rules should be applied to the state activity in the imperium sphere. This article will focus on the notion of an entrepreneur (undertaking) in polish and EU law in the context of the activity of the state. Design / Research methods: The objective of the article is achieved through doctrinal analysis of the relevant rules of the Polish and EU law and analysis of the recent decisions issued by the President of UOKiK, as well as judgments of the EU Courts, concerning the possibility of qualification of the widely understood state as an undertaking (entrepreneur).Conclusions / findings: From the analysis of the same concept applied in polish and EU law clearly follows that public entities acting ‘by exercising public power’ or ‘in their capacity as public authorities’ (imperium sphere) should not be classified as entrepreneurs (undertakings) in the meaning of competition law. The main scientific value added of the article are the conclusions that the provisions on the protection of competition should be applicable only to the activity of the state in the dominium sphere and that the definition of an entrepreneur and business (economic) activity should be connected to the existence of a market. Originality / value of the article: Paper should be interesting for public authorities, as well as for lawyers, dealing with problems concerning of qualification of public entities in the context of the competition law. The results of the research may be applied for example in the decisions that would be taken by the President of UOKiK. The consequences of application of the findings of the research to practice may be a change of approach to qualification of public entities in the context of the provision of competition law.

Проблемы реализации принципа идеологического многообразия по базовым сферам жизни общества

Within the framework of this publication, it is shown that ideological diversity permeates all spheres of public life and exerts a significant influence on all basic types of social relations. The authors found that in the political sphere, ideological diversity is expressed, first of all, in political diversity, or in political pluralism. The basic principles of the organization of political life in modern states of a democratic nature include the principle of multi-party system. It has also been established that, in accordance with the foundations of a democratic state, the Russian legal order excludes the right of arbitrary intrusion into the religious and confessional spheres. This expresses religious pluralism as a continuation of the constitutional principle of ideological diversity. The paper presents a position that diversity in the sociocultural sphere is based on the person's right to social and cultural self-identification. The publication reveals that freedom of economic activity is a fundamental basis for the realization of ideological diversity in the economic sphere. Guarantee of independent implementation of economic activity within the legal framework allows the subjects of economic relations to fully use their economic rights and legitimate interests.

Prawo przedsiębiorców — przedsiębiorca i reglamentacja na nowo?

The Law of Entrepreneurs — entrepreneur and rationing anew?On 13 February 2017, the Government Center for Legislation published aproposed piece of legis­lation called Law of entrepreneurs prepared by the Ministry of Development and Finance. The pro­posed act is supposed to replace the Act on freedom of economic activity and, together with the package of other acts, will be called the “Business Constitution”. The proposed draft law actually contains anumber of far-reaching changes in the legal environment of entrepreneurs. Adetailed dis­cussion of all proposed changes is beyond the scope of asingle article. Therefore, the main emphasis will be on the analysis and attempt to evaluate the proposed solutions related to the modification of basic definitions such as economic activity and entrepreneur and solutions relating to economic rationing.

FORMS OF FINANCIAL INTERACTION OF THE STATE AND BUSINESS IN INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS

In Ukraine, as in other developed countries, transportation is one of the basic sectors of economy and the most important component of industrial infrastructure. Sustainable development of transportation system is a guarantee of the unity of economic space, free movement of goods and services, competition and freedom of economic activity, ensuring the integrity of Ukraine and its national security, improvement of the quality of life of citizens. Studies of the aspects of the formation and implementation of public-private partnerships (PPP) in various sectors of the economy were a part of the research of scholars, such as V. Varnavskyy, V. Geyets, I. Zapatrina, P. Zakharchenko, Y. Zvorykina, V. Kondratiev, T. Lebeda, A. Sosnovskyy, O. Pyltyay and others. The aim of the article is to study the forms of financial cooperation between the state and business in the development of transport infrastructure. Progressive experience shows that implementation of different models of public-private partnership in transport sector, especially in the construction of highways, is gaining significant momentum. From various tools of PPP projects in transport sector the most common are PPP – institutional alternatives that represent specific options of responsibilities distribution between public and private partners and the ability to use different kinds of incentives. The most common PPP models for transport sector include: concession agreements; operator (service) state contract; life cycle contract; lease with investment obligations. The main sources of funding for PPP in road construction projects include: budgets of different levels, private sector funds, resources of financial institutions, funds of international financial institutions and private investors, funds of institutional investors. One of contemporary forms of PPP is infrastructure financing through the issuance of infrastructure bonds. The ability to raise funds of a large number of investors for a relatively low cost makes infrastructure bonds one of the most promising forms of funding for transport infrastructure. The development of public-private partnership in Ukraine, given the limited financial state resources, has to become a factor of economic growth and development of infrastructure sectors

ПРАВОВОЙ СТАТУС НЕМУСУЛЬМАНСКИХ РЕЛИГИОЗНЫХ ОБЩИН В ОСМАНСКОЙ ИМПЕРИИ В XVI-XIX вв.

The aim of the article is to investigate the legal status of non-Muslim communities in the Ottoman Empire. The author concluded that the sources of Islamic law, including the Koran and Islamic legal doctrine, formed the basis of the legal system of the Ottoman Empire, recognized the equality of people regardless of their racial, ethnic or religious affiliation. Non-Muslim subjects of the Ottoman Empire guaranteed the right to life, security of person and property, freedom of religion, freedom of economic activity, the right to judicial protection and protection against external enemies. However, the scope of rights and duties of citizens depend on their religious affiliation. The Ottoman Empire was essentially theocratic state, where Islam is the state religion and regularly held a dominant position among the other denominations. Served non-Muslim were somewhat limited in their rights: they could not come to the state, including military service, which does not allow us to talk about full equality of all subjects of the Ottoman Empire, regardless of religion.

Саморегулируемые организации в механизме реализации конституционной свободы экономической деятельности

Clause is devoted to research of a legal regulation of the organization and activity of the self-adjustable organizations on sense of constitutional freedom of economic activities. In opinion of the author, the institute of the self-adjustable organizations favourably differs from the state intervention in market economy as it allows the most enterprise community to supervise this sphere in the form of standardization of corporate behaviour, establishments of special and not state rules and procedures.

Freedom of Economic Activity and Tax Status of a Commune

Abstract This article is about permissible economic activity of a commune with special emphasis on the principles of taxation of individual actions taken by such a body. The basic thesis of this study is that recognition of a commune as the payer of goods and services tax is possible only to the extent of activities it undertakes within the scope of dominium, not imperium. The confirmation of that thesis is sought in historical and axiological considerations about economic freedom and also the analysis of legal framework for the activity of a commune. Moreover, the article provides an overview of practical problems related to taxation of communes.

LIETUVOS, LENKIJOS IR VOKIETIJOS ŪKINĖS VEIKLOS LAISVĖS KONSTITUCINIŲ PAGRINDŲ LYGINAMIEJI ASPEKTAI

Using comparative method, this article analyses constitutional basics of freedom of economic activity provided in the Constitutions of Lithuania, Poland, and Germany and their constitutional jurisprudence. The article is divided into three sections that respectively analyse the content of freedom of economic activity, its subjects, and the guaranteed limit of freedom of economic activity. The novelty of the article is demonstrated by the analysis of constitutional jurisprudence on freedom of economic activity in Lithuania, Poland, and Germany. The research showed that some countries recognize the freedom of economic activity as a constitutional subject right, and the others – as the economic basics of state that create the constitutional principle. Legal status of economic activity subjects in Germany and Poland are differentiated according to their form of property. Meanwhile, all Constitutional Courts of analysed countries distinguish the same special limitation conditions for economic activity: these limits should be prescribed by legislation and be based on public interest. The article provides the analysis of constitutional freedom of individual economic activity and initiative, which provides with assumption that this freedom will become simpler for both institutions that create the state economic policy and subjects that implement this freedom.

TEISINĖS ŪKINĖS VEIKLOS LAISVĖS IŠTAKOS

This article reveals historical circumstances of how the freedom of economic activity was formed and how it was incorporated into the Lithuanian constitutional law. The article indicates and describes general global circumstances that formed the freedom of economic activity (considering the influence of mercantilism), and it focuses on the more significant ideas of the classical liberal theory of economics that influenced the emergence of economic freedom the most positively. After discussing the formation of economic freedom in the world, the article describes circumstances that influenced its entrenchment in the Lithuanian constitutional law after the restoration of independence. The study showed that after the restoration of independence in the Republic of Lithuania, there was a need for the new Constitution, which was dictated by statehood, democracy, and free-market. The variety of Constitution projects by the Supreme Council of the Republic of Lithuania, various political parties, associations, and academics shows that there were various opinions on the structure of state and the legal status of an individual. However, thoughts on economic freedom were the same: it was intended to guarantee freedom for economic entities in order to choose and engage in economic activity, and the state should execute a protective function – to regulate the process of economic activity in such way, so that it would guarantee its freedom – rather than regulate the market. Considering the ideas of economic liberalism, the Constitution of 1992 emphasized limited constitutional power the state government in the field of economy, determining its competencies, constitutional balance, and cooperation with economic entities; it constitutionally entrenched rights and freedoms of economic entities, their defense methods.

Economic system and freedom of economic activity in constitutional law of Russia and foreign countries

Economic system and freedom of economic activity in constitutional law of Russia and foreign countries