Framework Of Language Policy Research Articles

Multi-Layered Language Policy and Translanguaging Space a Mother Tongue Classroom in Primary School in Sweden

This article is aimed to demonstrate how language policy at the local school level may create space for translanguaging. Focus is on a Mother Tongue (MT) classroom for Somali in a primary school in Sweden by way of an analysis of layers of language policy, with focus on spatial aspects. The empirical material consists of policy documents, interviews and observations documented through field notes and photographs from an MT Somali classroom with grade six students. Through the use of a framework of language policy as layered and linguistic landscaping with a focus on aspects of time, place and social factors, the analysis shows how the mother tongue classroom may constitute a demarcated room, while simultaneously interacting with other spaces both inside and outside school. The understanding of policy as layered made power relations visible in terms of language that moves between layers. It also made visible how school discourses shift between micro/macro, management/practice and inside/outside in the creation of space dominated by Somali and Swedish. It became apparent that an environment that supports the use of Somali inside the MT classroom may increase the likelihood of the pupils using Somali outside the classroom.

What can interactional sociolinguistics bring to the family language policy research table? The case of a Malay family in Singapore

ABSTRACT This research applies interactional sociolinguistics within a family language policy framework to investigate how social structures and institutional discourses outside the home trickle into daily mundane activities within a Malay-English bilingual family in Singapore. Drawing upon ethnographic interviews and naturally-occurring interactions at home, the study examines the parents’ reported linguistic ideologies and the ‘practiced’ family language policy. The analysis suggests that the family embraces language mixing in the family and reports making efforts to strike a balance between Malay and English at home as a way of raising the children bilingually. The analysis of familial interactions, however, shows that the parents’ and children’s language practices vary as certain frames are evoked in the conversation. The findings suggest that a better understanding of language maintenance and shift processes through family language policy research necessitates a nuanced examination of how languages are used to evoke, negotiate and establish certain frames during daily activities at home.

Bilingual Identity of Pashtoon Immigrants: Insights from Lahore

The aim of this article is to examine the ways through which the immigrant Pashto speech community constructs their bilingual identity in the multicultural settings of Lahore. The participants for the research were selected through purposive sampling technique. The data of the study was collected via interviews from 10 adults of Pashto speech community, who have been living in Lahore for more than five years. The study is based on the philosophy of Spolsky's (2004) Language Policy Framework, which considers language practices, beliefs and management as different ways of constructing identities. The nature of the data is descriptive and qualitative, and thematic analysis was used while the data coding was performed through Atlas.ti software. The findings revealed that the Pashto speakers use their first language (Pashto) in their home environment to maintain their language, identity and culture while using Urdu and English outside their home domain at their workplaces.

Deconstructing discourses of diversity

Abstract Despite the growing number of cross-cultural adolescents from immigrants and families formed through international/interracial marriages in South Korea, empirical studies investigating newcomer adolescents’ identity positioning in secondary education have been scarce. Drawing upon Ruíz’s (1984) framework for language policy and planning and Cummins’ (1986, 2001) empowerment framework for minority education, this article investigates how diversity is conceptualised in South Korea through a case study of multicultural education. Specifically, the article examines how newcomer adolescents’ linguistic and cultural identities are perceived by teachers and peers in two high schools. The findings revealed that diversity is dominantly viewed as an impediment to academic success for newcomer youth and is only appreciated once students are fully assimilated into Korean society. The concept of diversity as a resource and right and the notion of multicultural and multilingual identities in the Korean educational context are absent, or hidden, at best. Although there are examples where newcomer learners see diversity as empowerment and resources for their identity construction and positionality, this orientation has not been acknowledged in educational practices. The study calls for conceptualizing diversity as empowerment and resources as ethical lenses to move away from ethnocentric and deficit orientations.

To mix or not to mix: Parental attitudes towards translanguaging and language management choices

Aim and objectives: The present study investigates parental language beliefs and management among French-English bilingual families in the UK. It addresses the following two research questions. (a) What are parents’ attitudes towards translanguaging and beliefs about effective language management? (b) Do these beliefs and attitudes translate into language separation strategies versus flexible language practices? Design/methodology: This paper reports part of the results of a mixed-method study consisting of an online survey as well as multiple in-depth case studies. The qualitative portion of the present article focuses on two case studies including face-to-face interviews and observations in the family home. Data and analysis: Responses to the online questionnaire ( n = 164) were analysed using descriptive statistics. Thematic analysis was used for interview data. Observations were analysed through the Family Language Policy framework and by looking at turn-taking sequences and meta-linguistic comments. Results: Parental ideologies appear to have evolved towards more positive attitudes towards language mixing. However, these positive attitudes towards translanguaging do not necessarily result in flexible language practices at home. Findings/conclusions: Language separation strategies such as one parent–one language may be adopted not as a result of ideologies, but despite parents’ beliefs about the flexible nature of bilingualism and owing to the pressure experienced by parents to develop children’s heritage language (HL) proficiency. Originality: The findings contradict previous studies, which reported the predominance of monoglossic language ideologies among middle-class parents. They suggest that parental language beliefs may have evolved and that a translingual ideology is making its way into multilingual families. Significance/implications: The study suggests that practical support in the form of additional sources of HL input, rather than theoretical guidance, would be required for parents to embrace flexible language management at home. The present study findings also highlight the dilemma parents face between prioritising their children’s bilingual development and fostering a harmonious bilingual environment for their families.

English Medium Instruction Ideology, Management and Practices: a Case Study of Bangladeshi Private University

In an increasingly globalized world, English medium instruction (EMI) in higher education has now become a common phenomenon. Recent research, however, has shown that EMI is not without its problems. This article reports a case study of a private university from Bangladesh. Employing Spolsky’s language policy framework, the study made a critical analysis of the institutional policy statements and website content of the university, and also carried out interviews with policymakers, faculty members and students to uncover the ideology, management and practices of languages in the university. The findings reveal a mismatch between intentions of EMI policy based on the language ideologies of the stakeholders, and the actual language practices in the university. The findings raise serious concerns regarding the adaptation of EMI policy in private universities in Bangladesh. More importantly, the quality and consequences of implementing such EMI policies need further investigation.

How the medical professionals impact ASL and English families’ language planning policy

AbstractThis article explores the journey of eight hearing families of bimodal‐bilingual deaf children as they navigate the decision‐making process reflecting their beliefs and values about American Sign Language (ASL) and English through their family language policy framework. The resources offered to families with deaf children often reflect a medical view, rather than a cultural perspective of being deaf. Because medical professionals, educators, and specialists who work with deaf and hard‐of‐hearing children have a strong influence on family members’ opinions, beliefs, and attitudes about being deaf, it is even more crucial to correct misconceptions about ASL and empower families to develop a family language policy that is inclusive of their deaf and hard‐of‐hearing children. This article informs researchers, teachers, and other professionals about the potential benefits and challenges of supporting the families’ ASL and English language planning policy.

Siblings' play and language shift to English in a Malay‐English bilingual family in Singapore

AbstractThis research applies language socialization theory within a family language policy framework to investigate how language shift is realized in daily activities within a Malay‐English bilingual family in Singapore. Applying Goffman's frame analysis to two excerpts of siblings’ play from ninety hours of recordings of family interactions, we illustrate how children as young as four and seven enact adult roles such as teacher and student within the frame of play. In creatively enacting these roles, identities and social relations, the children draw upon their knowledge of play‐external structures – with which they have experience from other (non‐play) situations. The children consequently use English – what is typical of educational settings in Singapore – to portray an image of a teacher and student within the frame of play.

비판적 담론분석방법을 활용한 타당화 연구의 이해: 이주민 대상 언어시험의 맥락에서

Given the view of tests as mechanisms within a language policy framework (Shohamy, 2006), Korean proficiency tests are not only used as a way to measure language knowledge, but rather as tools to impose national ideologies about langage use and diversity. The field of Korean language testing needs to embrace sociopolitical dimensions, and engage what is going on value and consequence in test development and validation. By drawing upon a combined approach of Messick’s (1989) validity framework, Fairclough’s (2001) Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), Bachman and Palmer’s Assessment Use Arugment (AUA), this study aims to illustrate how the practice of testing can be discursively interpreted as a multilayered phenomenon, constituted through discourse. It discussed the applicability of AUA’s two claims (decisions, consequences) to the validation of Korean language proficiency or related certification testing for immigrants with foci of value implications and consequences. The interconnectedness of test validation and CDA is modelled through the procedure of Faircough’s (2001) analytic methodology. In an effort to illustrate that language testing is discursively value-laded, this study not only offer a theoretical and methodological addition to the current inquiry of test validation, but also re-emphasize that language testing is sociopolitically driven from a discursive angle.

Beyond the English Box: Constructing and Communicating Knowledge Through Translingual Practices in the Higher Education Classroom

As part of the growing trend of internationalization in higher education, new forms of linguistic practices are recently emerging in diverse contexts. However, such practices are often obscured by English medium instruction (EMI) policies, neglecting the role of other languages, semiotic resources, and modalities in the construction and communication of knowledge. Building on an expanded framework of language policy, in this study I take a “trans-” approach to reconceptualize the “E” in EMI. Specifically, the participants of this study include 18 university lecturers from a range of disciplinary backgrounds. Data was collected over a 6-month period through classroom observations and semistructured interviews. The findings show that translingual practices were not uncommon for a range of epistemological, pedagogical, and social purposes, but at the same time significantly constrained by monolingual ideologies that permeate the policy process. To open up translanguaging spaces in the higher education classroom, the study suggests to move current EMI policies from an English-only focus toward multilingual and translingual awareness. Instead of determining the language of instruction a priori, it is more important to focus on ways to become more linguistically aware and ecologically oriented, acknowledging the process of meaning-making as situated, holistic, and embodied.

‘Spanish at home, English at school’: how perceptions of bilingualism shape family language policies among Spanish-speaking parents of preschoolers

ABSTRACT In the United States nearly one third of children under five live in homes where a non-English language is spoken. However, many of these language-minority (LM) children shift towards English monolingualism after beginning school in early childhood. While language input and usage are central to acquisition and maintenance in each language, less is known about parents’ perceptions of bilingualism and how perceptions inform parents’ actions to support their child's bilingual development in early childhood. By applying a family language policy framework to data from 14 in-depth qualitative interviews, this study explores the beliefs and practices of Spanish-speaking mothers of preschoolers in a small northeastern US city. Thematic analyses revealed that mothers viewed Spanish maintenance alongside English acquisition as essential for economic opportunity and family communication, yet differed in their perceptions of how bilingualism was best supported. Some implemented a Spanish-only-at-home policy, delegating their child's English development to the school setting. Others avoided setting rigid boundaries, instead employing various discourse strategies to motivate their child's active Spanish use at home and seeking out school-based supports. Social pressures on the child, incomplete knowledge of local bilingual programs, and the current political climate countered mothers’ efforts to support their child's emergent bilingualism.

Determinants of emotional language use preferences of ethnolinguistic minority children in Antwerp, Belgium

ABSTRACT Within multilingual families, the emotionality of languages can impact individual and family wellbeing. But few studies have investigated the influence of the familial linguistic context in shaping emotional language use preferences. Guided by the Family Language Policy framework, we consider how the language use and the language attitudes of parents, siblings and children themselves affect the emotional language use preferences of children, independent of children's proficiencies in their heritage (HL) and institutional (IL) languages. We analyze unique data from over 500 primary school children (aged 10–12) from Moroccan, Turkish, Eastern-European and mixed descent living in Antwerp, the largest Dutch-speaking city of Belgium. We find that children's emotional preferesnces are strongly affected by their proficiency in the heritage language but not their proficiency in Dutch, by their parents’ and siblings’ language practices but not their own practice and by children's attitudes about the relative importance of HL and IL. Overall, the results suggest that emotional language preferences of children reflect children's own acculturation process as well as that of their families.

Aspectos pragmáticos y discursivos de los usos eufemísticos en la comunicación pública

Euphemism is a semantic phenomenon related to the transfer of meaning which implies a different sense of the lexical units that are materialized in a given context. For this reason, we conceive euphemistic uses and substitutes as examples of the cohesive mechanism of substitution, associated to identical reference. From this point of view, we will analyze euphemism as a pragmatic and discourse phenomenon, not only connected to the pragmatic strategy of attenuation, but to other communicative goals for which it is useful, such as occultation, masking or blurring a particularly unpleasant reality. To this purpose a Critical Discourse Analysis focus is proposed, one that will allow us to observe in both lexical units and other complex expressions semantic implications of euphemism and its use as a pragmatic strategy within messages delivered in what we call public communication. As a result, we intend to explore application possibilities in the field of lexicography, or more precisely, computational lexicography, and in the formulation of proposals in the framework of language policy involved in deontological codes for specific contexts of communication (style books, good practices handbooks, etc.).

Language policy in Chinese higher education: a focus on international students in China

AbstractThis paper is motivated by the observation that relatively little research has been done to investigate language policy in Chinese higher education oriented towards international students, in the context that China welcomes an increasing number of international students in its higher education sector in response to globalisation. The paper integrates Spolsky’s (2012) three-component framework of language policy with Ricento and Hornberger’s (1996) approach that examines language policy in multiple levels. It also considers the implications for language policy of research into English as a lingua franca. Empirical data are collected through document analysis, interviews and classroom observation to explore what language policies are available to support Chinese higher education for international students and how language policies are operationalised in institutional settings, with a focus on one university as a case study. The investigation reveals a policy vacuum in Chinese higher education for international students and concludes with a discussion of ways of addressing the vacuum.RésuméCet article est motivé par l’observation que relativement peu de recherches ont été faites pour étudier la politique linguistique dans l’enseignement supérieur chinois orienté vers les étudiants internationaux. Cela peut surprendre dans le contexte que la Chine accueille un nombre croissant d’étudiants internationaux dans son secteur de l’enseignement supérieur en réponse à la mondialisation. L’article intègre les trois dimensions de la politique linguistique proposées par Spolsky (2012) avec l’approche de Ricento et Hornberger (1996) qui examine la politique linguistique à plusieurs niveaux. Il considère également les implications pour la politique linguistique de la recherche en anglais comme lingua franca. Les données empiriques sont recueillies par l’analyse de documents, les entretiens et l’observation en classe. Cela permet d’explorer les politiques linguistiques disponibles pour soutenir l’enseignement supérieur chinois en direction des étudiants internationaux et montre comment les politiques linguistiques sont mises en action dans le cadre des établissements, avec une étude de cas. L’enquête révèle un vide politique dans l’enseignement supérieur chinois en ce qui concerne les étudiants internationaux, ce qui conduit à la discussion sur les moyens d’aborder le vide dans la conclusion.

Promotion in times of endangerment: the Sign Language Act in Finland

The development of sign language recognition legislation is a relatively recent phenomenon in the field of language policy. So far only few authors have documented signing communities’ aspirations for recognition legislation, how they work with their governments to achieve legislation which most reflects these goals, and whether and why outcomes are successful. Indeed, from signing communities’ point of view, it appears most current legislation leaves much to be desired. One reason for this is the absence of language acquisition rights and the right to access services directly in sign language. This paper, through appealing to a critical language policy framework and employing principles of the ethnography of language policy, will illustrate this by critically analyzing the ambitions and motives, as expressed by the Finnish Association of the Deaf, for a Sign Language Act in Finland. It also compares the situation of signers in Finland with that of the Sami, the other minority group mentioned in the constitution with designated language legislation. The findings suggest that the Act is innovative and internationally unique in different aspects but does not reflect FAD’s most important pursuits, and is very different from the Sami Language Act. An exploration of the reasons behind this difference, which makes Finland’s sign languages both promoted and endangered, can make significant contributions to the field of sign language policy but also to the wider (critical) language policy field.

Language policy in Malawi: A study of its contexts, factors for its development and consequences

The article examines the different factors and contexts which have influenced language policy in Malawi from the time of early missionaries to the present, and highlights the implications and consequences of the language policy—both politically, educationally and socially. However, given the conceptual framework of language policy and the historical, linguistic and cultural disposition of the Malawian society which emphasize education, the article has its main focus on the education system. In addition to intensive literature review and document analysis, semi-structured interviews, mainly with secondary school teachers, were conducted in Mzimba District in July 2014. The study ascertains that current language practices were founded on the framework and philosophies of various missionary groups which have highly influenced and affected the development of both indigenous and foreign languages in Malawi. It further discovered that the long-standing leadership of Hastings Kamuzu Banda has had a huge impact on language attitude, practices and the overall language policy. However, since the election of Bakili Muluzi and the new multi-party democracy, the policy has generally been characterised by linguistic pluralism although not much has been done to make it more favourable to vernacular languages due to lack of resources and improper implementation. The paper concludes that the implementation of language policy in Malawi, like in many other African countries, faces many challenges and is riddled with contradictions whether implicit or explicit. Keywords: Language of Learning and Teaching (LoLT), linguistic justice, vertical communication, language attitude, language policy, linguistic pluralism

"Where art thou Sesotho?": Exploring the linguistic landscape of Wits University

The article seeks to examine if the University of the Witwatersrand (Wits)’s language policy on paper is visually reflected on the linguistic landscape of the institution. The objective of this policy is to promote multilingualism, especially the status elevation of Sesotho to become a medium of instruction alongside English and a field of academic study and research. Masoke-Kadenge and Kadenge (2013) note that conceptual flaws within the policy, financial constraints and lack of political will were some of the challenges that militated against the successful implementation of this policy. Today, twelve years after the adoption of this policy, Wits is largely monolingual. This article adopts an expanded view of language policy and explores the linguistic landscape of Wits with the goal of providing invaluable insights into the sociolinguistic situation at the institution. The main focus is on language visibility on public signage in the form of names of buildings like libraries, lecture venues and laboratories, warning notices and directions, among others, and important documentation like employment contracts, e-mails and newsletters at the Braamfontein East campus. The analysis also extends to the university’s website. The findings from this study show that the linguistic landscape of Wits is largely a reflection of the failed institutional language policy. It symbolically reproduces an old language ideology of a monolingual – English-based –university, which goes against the spirit of the National Language Policy Framework (Department of Arts and Culture, 2002) which compels South African universities to transform and develop language policies that accommodate linguistic, cultural and racial diversity.

‘Meaningful engagement’: Towards a language rights paradigm for effective language policy implementation

This article aims to develop the concept of ‘meaningful engagement’ in terms of the contemporary language policy implementation framework in South Africa. By exploring the current language policies, implementation and the current lack of effectiveness, the authors offer a new implementation focus drawn from the legal concept of ‘meaningful engagement’. ‘Meaningful engagement’ is a concept within the socio-economic rights sphere. This article expands and advances the concept within a language policy framework. Against the enabling legislative environment created by the Use of Official Languages Act 12 of 2012 and the overarching Constitutional framework which embeds the rights of all official languages, ‘meaningful engagement’ is developed and applied to selected language policies and practices. The authors propose the application of ‘meaningful engagement’ as a viable and more coherent tool for enhancing the effectiveness of language policy implementation and advancing language practices within relevant domains across the socio-economic landscape in South Africa.

Coexistencia de lenguas y planificación lingüística: la convivencia del castellano y catalán en Cataluña

En el marco de una denominada planificación lingüística de determinación, en la que se intenta solventar situaciones problemáticas derivadas de la presencia de varios sistemas lingüísticos en contacto, existen en el panorama internacional diferentes modelos que permiten establecer una tipología de actuaciones encaminadas a regular el uso y la coexistencia de dichas modalidades en un mismo espacio geográfico. Dichas actuaciones se reflejan en el establecimiento de diferentes modelos educativos y en el control de los medios de comunicación. En el desarrollo histórico de la planificación lingüística en Cataluña en el último siglo podemos observar cómo la defensa del unilingüismo hispanófono ha dado paso a la aparición de un marco legal dirigido al fomento de la lengua catalana. Por tanto, el objetivo de este trabajo es el de recoger las cuestiones inherentes al controvertido marco actual de decisiones, incluyendo tanto los argumentos que lo sostienen como los movimientos de reacción frente al mismo.

Te Reo Māori as a Subject: The Impact of Language Ideology, Language Practice, and Language Management on Secondary School Students’ Decision Making

Te reo Māori, the Indigenous language of Aotearoa (New Zealand), remains ‘endangered’ despite concentrated ongoing efforts to reverse declining numbers of speakers. Most of these efforts have focused on te reo Māori immersion education settings as these were considered the most effective means to ensure the survival of the language (May & Hill, 2008). More recently, the home has been identified as an important setting for language regeneration (Te Puni Kokiri, 2011). Despite the fact that the vast majority of secondary school-aged students (both Māori and non-Māori) attend English-medium schools, these settings are seldom considered as having potential to increase numbers of te reo Māori speakers. This article reports findings from a case study of one English-medium secondary school where factors surrounding the uptake of te reo Māori as a subject were investigated. Using Spolsky and Shohamy's (2000) language policy framework as an explanatory lens, it was revealed that even when students’ language ideologies orient them towards learning te reo Māori, language management and practice decisions can discourage rather than encourage this choice.