Four-component Instructional Design Research Articles

The Instructional Design of a 4C/ID-Inspired Learning Environment for Upper Secondary School Students’ Research Skills

In today’s complex world, the acquisition of research skills is considered an important goal in education. Consequently, there is a growing body of literature that recognizes the value of well-designed learning environments for effectively supporting the development of this complex set of skills. However, a clear consensus on how these research skills can be facilitated is currently lacking, and the design processes underlying the learning environments aiming to foster students’ research skills are not always clearly outlined. Furthermore, interventions aiming to foster these skills are often implemented in the domains of physics, biology, and chemistry, while other domains (such as behavioral and social sciences domains) remain understudied. In addition, current approaches to foster research skills often refer to only a few epistemic activities (Fischer et al., 2014) related to research skills. Inspired by a design-based research approach, this design effort case seeks to clearly explain the design considerations for, and the development of an online learning environment aiming to foster upper secondary school students’ research skills in a behavioral sciences context. The online learning environment (RISSC or Research In Social SCiences) consists of a lesson series designed based on a systematic approach to four-component instructional design (van Merriënboer & Kirschner, 2018), and was piloted with two different cohorts in upper secondary education and in first year of university.

Expert knowledge elicitation in the firefighting domain and the implications for training novices

Background/PurposeExperienced firefighters often make important decisions in fast-paced fire ground environments characterised by uncertainty and evolving conditions, mostly under considerable time-pressure. The nature of these environments inadvertently presents firefighters with novel situations that occasionally challenge their expertise, subsequently necessitating a reliance on intuitive as opposed to rational decisions. The purpose of this study is to elicit the tacitly held knowledge and intuitive thought processes that were used by 31 experts while managing a range of complex, non-routine fire incidents.Design/Methodology/ApproachThe study used a formal knowledge elicitation technique known as the critical decision method (CDM). CDM is a qualitative strategy that applies a set of cognitive probes to explore the cognitive processes that aid the performance of a complex task. This method was preferred to other cognitive task analysis methods as it specifically favours the use of retrospective incident accounts and incidents that were both challenging and memorable. Using the full CDM protocol, 31 experienced firefighters were interviewed across various fire stations in the UK and Nigeria (UK = 15, Nigeria = 16). The interview transcripts were coded, categorised and analysed using the emergent themes analysis approach.FindingsThe results from the study identified 134 decision points across the 31 incident accounts. A total of 42 salient cues sought by experts at each decision point were revealed and organised into a critical cue inventory. The identified cues were subsequently categorised into five distinct types based on the type of information each cue relayed to an incident commander. The study further developed a decision-making model – information filtering and intuitive decision-making model – that describes how experienced firefighters made difficult fire ground decisions amidst multiple informational sources. The model ultimately showed experts’ preferences for intuitive decisions as the default-thinking mode, with deliberation only required on few instances as conditions warranted. The study also compiled and indexed the cognitive strategies elicited from the expert firefighters into a competence assessment framework.Practical ImplicationsIn light of existing debate about the accessibility of expert knowledge, the current study not only provides empirical evidence detailing the practical application of the CDM as a formal knowledge elicitation method but also delineates a range of cognitive outputs from the elicitation process that ultimately holds relevance for knowledge transfer from expert to novices. The study identified a range of training needs and discussed the practical implications of transferring expert knowledge into learning tasks that could subsequently aid the cognitive development of novices. In particular, the study proposed adopting the four-component instructional design model in organising the CDM outputs for training purposes.Originality/ValueWhile it is generally taken that experts, because of their extensive domain knowledge and well-developed schema, often perform considerably (and sometimes exceptionally) well when solving complex problems, finding a credible and objective method to model what experts know and do continues to pose a challenge, particularly when such revelation is crucially required for training purposes. This study is therefore timely since its tacit and intuitive knowledge outputs can now be applied to enhance the development of training curricula for novices. The learning tasks developed from the CDM outputs are hoped to facilitate organisational learning not only within the firefighting domain but also across other high reliability organisations. It is extremely important that expert knowledge is preserved in these domains especially in countries such as the UK, where the rate of real fires has been on decline, which in turn suggests that the quality of experiential knowledge required to manage complex non-routine fire cases may also be on decline. The current study also presents and discusses insights based on the cultural differences observed between the UK and the Nigerian fire services.

A design-led conceptual framework for developing school integrated STEM programs: the Australian context

Integrated Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education is recognised as the latest development stage on the pathway to a highly capable future workforce, and is thus linked to a nation’s future development and prosperity. However, despite various appeals and efforts by the Australian Government, effective processes for constructing relevant educational programs within local curricula remain under-researched. A comprehensive review of the design, and design-led education literature, and of related attempts to develop suitable instructional content and approaches, has been conducted. Its outcome is a recommendation to adopt a design-based pedagogy utilising 3D printing for the development and implementation of integrated STEM programs. Accordingly, this paper proposes a new area of research that requires a deep understanding of appropriate design processes, skills, and mindsets, for integrated STEM education. This study also prototypes a design-led conceptual framework to assist educators in developing integrated STEM programs. Based on the learning theory of Distributed Cognition and the Four-component Instructional Design (4C/ID) model, this conceptual framework begins to address an urgent need to prioritise methodologically rigorous evidence-based research on integrated STEM education. It also has the potential to lead to the formation and collaboration of STEM education communities of teachers, students, and researchers as external instructional leaders to co-develop design-led integrated STEM curriculum.

Continuing endodontic education and COVID‐19: before, during and after?

In all likelihood, the COVID-19 pandemic will continue to have a major impact on the practice of dentistry, not only in clinical practice but also in education. Certainly both dental schools and continuing education providers will be impacted, and particularly with respect to hand skill teaching for example in endodontic procedures.

Four-component instructional design model and its application on clinical teaching in orthodontics

As an important sub-discipline of dentistry, orthodontics is regarded as the post-graduate education for postgraduates and advanced doctors both at home and abroad. Orthodontics is a professional, practical and systematic discipline, therefore, the conventional education model is hard to get a good result. In this study, a new idea of four-component instructional design model (4C/ID) guided by integration was explored in the education of orthodontics, combined with the author's study experience in the University of Pennsylvania. The 4C/ID mainly included four elements: tasks, supportive information, procedural information and part-task practice, which emphasized in providing learners a set of real, specific and work-oriented complete tasks, so as to replace partial task learning to overall task learning. This study explored the 4C/ID and its application on clinical teaching in orthodontics. Key words: Orthodontics; Four-component instructional design model; Education reform

A Sample Design in Programming with Four-Component Instructional Design (4C/ID) Model

The aim of this study is to introduce the four-component instructional design (4C/ID) model in teaching loops for programming by using the model, which is defined in programming instruction, with the principles of the model for teaching technical skills and to discuss the differences in instructional planning and to discuss in the process of design of loops. It is important to integrate knowledge, skills and attitudes in the transfer of knowledge learned in schools to our business life and culture, and to transfer behaviors to new tasks. In the software development process, the planning, design, development and implementation of the programming courses with appropriate instructional design models and strategies should be ensured in order to teach and learn the subjects of the different courses in an effective and meaningful way. At this time, four-component instructional design (4C/ID) model are used for learning complex technical skills and presented in programming to apply loops for teaching skills in software development for programmers, designers and educators. At the end of study, the relationships between ID models and their use in programming process are indicated, and suggestions for developers, programmers and designers are discussed for the future research and applications in programming.

Four-Component Instructional Design (4C/ID) Model Approach for Teaching Programming Skills

The need for methods, techniques and approaches that we can develop high-level thinking skills in important activities increases day by day in order to achieve effective use of technology and change in information and communication technologies. In particular, the diversity, complexity of technical skills and to gain technical skills required to be learned in schools and through applications in industry is important. Teaching the programming as a technical skill during instructional design process (ID) and how effective and meaningful teaching can be taught is an important problem. Thus, instructional design models have been developed for the solution of learning problems in systemic, systematic and appropriate learning conditions and especially for the development of technical skills (van Merrienboer (1997). The instructional design model (4C/ID) activity mentioned here can be used for teaching the importance of instructional and technological stages by combining and supporting another multimedia project design, development and evaluation model. This study presents technical skills only by pointing to the future developers and designers of programming that an instructional design approach can be used to develop other programming skills. In addition, through ten steps proposed for complex learning (van Merrienboer & Kirschner 2007) and steps in achieving complex cognitive, high-level, algorithm based limited coding, technical skills, it is to provide a new different approach to program developers, instructors and designers by planning and discussing the design of the process within a basic frame as to be in four stages (van Merrienboer & Kirschner 2007). The purpose of this study is to adapt the principles of the model for teaching technical skills by using four-component instructional design model (4C/ID) within software programming. In this study, theoretical framework for teaching complex technical skills, learning theories and problem solving in programming are given. The relationships between components of 4C/ID model presented for teaching programming skills. At the end of study, the ID model components and their applications for future programming skills were indicated.

Applying four-component instructional design to develop acase presentation curriculum.

Medical students must gain proficiency with the complex skill of case presentations, yet current approaches to instruction are fragmented and often informal, resulting in suboptimal transfer of this skill into clinical practice. Whole task approaches to learning have been proposed to teach complex skill development. The authors describe a longitudinal case presentation curriculum developed using a whole task approach known as four-component instructional design (4-C/ID). 4‑C/ID is based on cognitive psychology theory, and carefully attends to titrating a learner’s cognitive load, aiming to always keep students in their zone of proximal development. A multi-institutional group of medical educators convened to develop expert consensus regarding case presentation instruction using the 4‑C/ID model. A curriculum consisting of 1) learning tasks, 2) supportive information, 3) just-in-time information, and 4) part-task practice was developed. Domains were identified that make the task of delivering a case presentation complex. A simplifying conditions approach was applied to each domain to develop sequential task class descriptions. Examples of the four components are given to facilitate understanding of the 4‑C/ID model, making it more accessible to medical educators. Applying 4‑C/ID to curriculum development for the complex skill of case presentation delivery may optimize instruction. The provision of the complete curricular outline may facilitate transfer and implementation of this case presentation curriculum, as well as foster the application of 4‑C/ID to other complex skill development in medical education.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1007/s40037-018-0443-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The Relationship Between Acceptance, Actual Use of a Virtual Learning Environment and Performance: An Ecological Approach

The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is regularly used to investigate students’ acceptance of virtual learning environments and the impact on students’ intention to use. Past TAM studies barely investigated students’ actual use of virtual learning environments, neither how actual use relates to their performance in an ecological valid educational context. In this study, a Moodle-based virtual learning environment regarding teaching a foreign language is studied in a teacher education context. The instructional design is based on the four-component instructional design model (4C/ID model). We measured the students’ acceptance of the virtual learning environment using the perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use scales of TAM. Log data were analysed to detect students’ actual use, and a pretest and posttest was used to assess students’ performance. Structural equation modelling (N = 191) reveals that PU has a significant influence on actual use of the virtual learning environment, and that actual use of the virtual learning environment positively influences students’ performance.

Developing integrated clinical reasoning competencies indental students using scaffolded case-based learning - empirical evidence.

This study provides empirical evidence of the development of integrated clinical reasoning in the discipline-based School of Dentistry, University of Pretoria, South Africa. Students were exposed to case-based learning in comprehensive patient care (CPC) in the preclinical year of study, scaffolded by means of the four-component instructional design model for complex learning. Progress test scores of third- to fifth-year dental students, who received case-based teaching and learning in the third year (2009-2011), were compared to the scores of preceding fourth- and fifth-year cohorts. These fourth- and fifth-year cohorts received content-based teaching concurrently with their clinical training in CPC. The progress test consisted of a complex case study and 32 MCQs on tracer conditions. Students had to gather the necessary information and had to make diagnostic and treatment-planning decisions. Preclinical students who participated in the case-based teaching and learning achieved similar scores compared to final-year students who received lecture-based teaching and learning. Final-year students who participated in the case-based learning made three more correct clinical decisions per student, compared to those who received content-based teaching. Students struggled more with treatment-planning than with diagnostic decisions. The scaffolded case-based learning appears to contribute to accurate clinical decisions when compared to lecture-based teaching. It is suggested that the development of integrated reasoning competencies starts as early as possible in a dental curriculum, perhaps even in the preclinical year of study. Treatment-planning should receive particular attention.

Development of pre-service teachers’ information and communication technology (ICT) in education competencies in a mainland Chinese university

This paper examines how the design and implementation of a core teacher education course develops pre-service teachers’ information communication technology (ICT) in education competencies in a mainland Chinese university. This course adopted a four-component instructional design system to develop its curriculum, incorporated an inquiry-based learning approach to develop pre-service teachers’ pedagogical competencies, and used an online learning platform to facilitate the sharing of experiences of using ICT for teaching and learning. This case study demonstrates that innovative pedagogies together with more relevant course content supported by an online learning platform may enhance the effectiveness of a core ICT in education course.

Board #142 - Research Abstract The Effectiveness of Instructional-design Based Simulation Scenarios for Postpartum Hemorrhage (Submission #7894)

Hypothesis The integration of the science of learning and instruction in the field of healthcare simulation is a recognized need1 and instructional design (ID) principles emerge as interesting evidence-based guidelines for the development of this field.2 Several ID models are available such as Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction and Four-Component Instructional Design (4C/ID).3-4 Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is a leading cause of maternal death. Up to 80% of cases are attributable to lack of adequate training, poor communication, and insufficient teamwork.5 Simulation training is an effective tool for training complex skills particularly when instructional features are embedded.6-7 The current study aims to compare the learning outcomes of an experimental PPH simulation training based on ID principles and a typical PPH simulation scenario as described in the literature. Our hypothesis is that the experimental training has higher learning outcomes. Methods A pretest-posttest non-equivalent groups design was used. Residents from Recife, Brazil were divided into teams with 2-3 members. A PPH management protocol was constructed and the scenarios’ content was organized in eight learning constructs: communication, teamwork, vital signs, venous access, exams and mechanical, drug, and surgical managements. Each construct had several tasks to be executed. Experimental training consisted of eight steps: prior knowledge, video demonstration, protocol discussion, scenario 1, debriefing, scenario 2, debriefing with self-assessment, scenario 3. Control training consisted of three steps: prior knowledge, scenario, and debriefing. Teams from both training formats were submitted to the same pretest and posttest scenarios, which were video recorded for further analysis. The learning outcomes were compared by number of correct tasks executed at pretest and posttest, as well as the time required to execute each task and the adequateness of its execution. Results Twenty-nine residents in 13 teams attended the experimental training program, and 19 residents in seven teams attended the control training. Training formats were in-situ, with part-task PPH simulator and standardized patient. For learning outcomes comparison between the diferent training formats the number of executed tasks, per construct, per team of residents will be analyzed. In addition, time taken to execute each task and adequateness of task execution (5-point Likert scale) will be measured. The video-recorded pretest and posttest scenarios, for both training formats, will be analyzed by two different experienced and certified OBGYN. While full results will be presented during IMSH2015, we currently present a preliminary analysis of the mean proportions of executed tasks at pretest and posttest of the experimental training (Table 1). The means show a significant increase for the following constructs: communication, teamwork, venous access, exams, and drug management. Conclusion The findings demonstrate an increase in learning outcomes for OBGYN residents on the management of PPH scenarios, after following a training format that is based on ID principles. The increase was statistically significant in constructs considered important for the management of complex clinical cases, such as communication, teamwork, venous access, exams and drug management. For constructs on which a statistically significant difference was not demonstrated (vital signs, mechanical management, surgical management), one possible explanation may be the small number of tasks at the scenarios. Therefore, further analysis of data, such as time to execute tasks and adequateness of executions, may contribute to further explaining present findings. These additional analyses and future comparisons between findings from the experimental model of PPH simulation training to the control training may also add to the current body of knowledge regarding the proper design of simulation-based training.

Learning from and thoughts on the Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology (3rd edition): Part 2 — insights in complexity theory, situational theory, and several other hot topics

This paper elaborates on what the author has learned from the Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology (3rd edition) in four respects: complexity theory and the complex learning supported by technology, situational theory and the scenariobased teaching model and strategy, the first principles of instruction and the four-component instructional design model (4C/ID), and the debate regarding the future of educational technology as a result of the changes in the direction of technical research.

Developing clinical reasoning in the classroom - analysis of the 4C/ID-model.

The purpose of this study is to provide a theoretical rationale for the implementation of the four-component instructional design model for complex learning (4C/ID-model) at the University of Pretoria with the aim of systematically developing the clinical reasoning of undergraduate dental students in a classroom setting. Recent literature provides a rationale for the use of the 4C/ID-model to teach clinical reasoning in terms of four strategic teaching and learning needs: (i) the need for authenticity in the learning process; (ii) the need to manage cognitive load during the learning process; (iii) the need for repeated practice; (iv) a need for valid assessment, feedback and reflection. The literature review indicated that the 4C/ID-model makes provision for teaching and learning in an authentic context and proposes systematically structured methods that could be practically applied to manage cognitive load during repetitive exercises. The model also makes provision for cognitive feedback following assessment in order to eliminate misconceptions about content and to develop the cognitive strategies of the learner. On the basis of the literature review above, it is recommended that the 4C/ID-model be considered as a basis for classroom teaching and learning to develop competence in clinical reasoning in undergraduate dental students, even at pre-clinical level. The model may also have an application in medical education.

From Lecture to Learning Tasks: Use of the 4C/ID Model in a Communication Skills Course in a Continuing Professional Education Context

This article describes the use of four-component instructional design (4C/ID), a model to plan educational interventions for complex learning. This model was used to design a continuing education course on communication skills for health professionals in a context that is hierarchical and communal. The authors describe the 4C/ID model and provide an example of its application in designing the course. In the 4C/ID model, learning tasks serve as the backbone of the course, with lectures and other supportive information organized around them. The 4C/ID model is different from traditional models that base the course on lectures on different topics and connect part-task assignments to these topics. The use of the 4C/ID model to develop the educational intervention moves the paradigm from lectures to learning tasks to better prepare learners for real practice.

Perspectives on problem solving and instruction

Most educators claim that problem solving is important, but they take very different perspective on it and there is little agreement on how it should be taught. This article aims to sort out the different perspectives and discusses problem solving as a goal, a method, and a skill. As a goal, problem solving should not be limited to well-structured problem solving but be extended to real-life problem solving. As a method, problem solving has clear limitations for novice learners; providing ample support to learners is of utmost importance for helping them to develop problem-solving skills. As a skill, problem solving should not be seen as something that only occurs in the early phases of a process of expertise development but as a process that develops in parallel in System 1 and System 2. The four-component instructional design model (4C/ID) is briefly discussed as an approach that is fully consistent with the conceptualization described in this article and as a preliminary answer to the question how problem solving is best taught.

Models and Design Judgment: Conflicting Perspectives on Redesigning a Doctoral Readings Course

The purpose of this project was to document the redesign of an existing doctoral reading course for an online environment. Potential methods for actualizing the proposed course structure in an online environment, including technology tools and interactions are discussed. The design process began within the framework of the Four-Component Instructional Design (4C/ID) model (van Merriënboer, 1997; van Merriënboer & Kirchner, 2007), which advocates a shift from topic-centeredness to a task-centered course organization, but quickly evolved into a flexible, iterative design process that was informed by prototyping, the judgment of the design team, and various theories of knowledge and knowing. The 4C/ID model represented our philosophical starting point, but our focus quickly shifted to a more flexible, eclectic process as we attempted to reconcile conflicting constraints on the final design. Along with the redevelopment of course objectives to meet strategic goals within the doctoral program came a focus on facilitating research thinking of the students rather than teaching isolated research tasks. The design process resulted in changes to the current residential course, which then provided an opportunity for further investigation.

Designing simulator-based training: An approach integrating cognitive task analysis and four-component instructional design

Most studies of simulator-based surgical skills training have focused on the acquisition of psychomotor skills, but surgical procedures are complex tasks requiring both psychomotor and cognitive skills. As skills training is modelled on expert performance consisting partly of unconscious automatic processes that experts are not always able to explicate, simulator developers should collaborate with educational experts and physicians in developing efficient and effective training programmes. This article presents an approach to designing simulator-based skill training comprising cognitive task analysis integrated with instructional design according to the four-component/instructional design model. This theory-driven approach is illustrated by a description of how it was used in the development of simulator-based training for the nephrostomy procedure.

Developing and Piloting an Online Graduate Nursing Course Focused on Experiential Learning of Qualitative Research Methods

Despite the turmoil of a worldwide economic crisis, the health sector remains largely understaffed, and the nursing shortage represents a major issue that jeopardizes graduate nursing education. Access to education remains a challenge, particularly in rural and remote areas. This article reports the process of developing an asynchronous online qualitative research course. This online course was piloted among 16 interdisciplinary students. Participants agreed that experiential learning was useful to understand the intricacies of qualitative research. Within this constructivist approach, students were immersed in real-life experiences, which focused on the development of skills applicable to qualitative research. Based on the findings, we suggest that constructivism and the Four-Component Instructional Design (4C/ID) model (a four-part approach for fostering the development of complex skills) represent valuable ontological and pedagogical approaches that can be used in online courses. Triangulating these two approaches is also congruent with the student-centered philosophy that underpins nursing graduate programs.

Toward a Synthesis of Cognitive Load Theory, Four-Component Instructional Design, and Self-Directed Learning

This article explores the opportunities to apply cognitive load theory and four-component instructional design to self-directed learning. Learning tasks are defined as containing three elements: learners must (a) perform the tasks, (b) assess their task performance, and (c) select future tasks for improving their performance. Principles to manage intrinsic and extraneous load for performing learning tasks, such as simple-to-complex ordering and fading-guidance strategies, are also applicable to assessing performance and selecting tasks. Moreover, principles to increase germane load, such as high variability and self-explanation prompts, are also applicable to assessment and selection. It is concluded that cognitive load theory and four-component instructional design provide a solid basis for a research program on self-directed learning.