Formation Of Zone Research Articles

Driving forces of solid-state Cu-to-Cu direct bonding suppressing the work-hardening loss by refill friction stir spot welding

In this study, the solid-state bonding of the Cu-to-Cu parallel connection with no fusion zone and keyhole formation was achieved using the refill friction stir spot welding (RFSSW) process. During the refilling process, significant plastic flow and thermo-compressive behavior promoted geometric and continuous dynamic recrystallization behaviors and highly oriented (111) microstructures, serving as key mechanisms to prevent work-hardening loss and reinforce the joint. Furthermore, the refinement of the grain size without work-hardening loss, increased by 50.8 % which was from 61 Hv in the base material to 92 Hv in the thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ). Even, the hardness of the TMAZ/stir zone interface noticeably increased up to 138 Hv as the reduction in the stacking fault energy (SFE) due to the infiltration of Al element at the trace from the tool. The contribution of microstructural features to the mechanical property was quantitatively investigated by a modified Hall-Petch relationship in terms of the grain size, sub-grain size, and dislocation density. This study systematically investigated the driving forces for the implementation of Cu-to-Cu direct bonding, where work-hardening loss can be suppressed, through the RFSSW process from the perspective of dynamic recrystallization behavior and SFE due to partial alloying of Al elements.

Probing Phoretic Transport of Oxidative Enzyme-Bound Zn(II)-Metallomicelle in Adenosine Triphosphate Gradient via a Spatially Relocated Biocatalytic Zone.

Although cellular transport machinery is mostly ATP-driven and ATPase-dependent, there has been a recent surge in understanding colloidal transport processes relying on a nonspecific physical interaction with biologically significant small molecules. Herein, we probe the phoretic behavior of a biocolloid [composed of a Zn(II)-coordinated metallomicelle and enzymes horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and glucose oxidase (GOx)] when exposed to a concentration gradient of ATP under microfluidic conditions. Simultaneously, we demonstrate that an ATP-independent oxidative biocatalytic product formation zone can be modulated in the presence of a (glucose + ATP) gradient. We report that both directionality and extent of transport can be tuned by changing the concentration of the ATP gradient. This diffusiophoretic mobility of a submicrometer biocolloidal object for the spatial transposition of a biocatalytic zone signifies the ATP-mediated functional transportation without the involvement of ATPase. Additionally, the ability to analyze colloidal transport in microfluidic channels using an enzymatic fluorescent product-forming reaction could be a new nanobiotechnological tool for understanding transport and spatial catalytic patterning processes. We believe that this result will inspire further studies for the realization of elusive biological transport processes and target-specific delivery vehicles, considering the omnipresence of the ATP-gradient across the cell.

Why Is Reducing the Dead Zone in the Gulf of Mexico Such a Complex Goal? Understanding the Structure That Drives Hypoxic Zone Formation via System Dynamics

The Northern Gulf of Mexico hosts a severe dead zone, an oxygen-depleted area spanning 1,618,000 hectares, threatening over 40% of the U.S. fishing industry and causing annual losses of USD 82 million. Using a System Dynamics (SD) approach, this study examined the Mississippi–Atchafalaya River Basin (MARB), a major contributor to hypoxia in the Gulf. A dynamic model, developed with Vensim software version 10.2.1 andexisting data, represented the physical, biological, and chemical processes leading to eutrophication and simulated dead zone formation over time. Various policies were assessed, considering natural system variability. The findings showed that focusing solely on nitrogen control reduced the dead zone but required greater intensity or managing other inputs to meet environmental goals. Runoff control policies delayed nutrient discharge but did not significantly alter long-term outcomes. Extreme condition tests highlighted the critical role of runoff dynamics, dependent on nitrogen load relative to flow volume from upstream. The model suggests interventions should not just reduce eutrophication inputs but enhance factors slowing down the process, allowing natural denitrification to override anthropogenic nitrification.

Large-Eddy Simulation Study of Flow and Combustion Dynamics in a Full-Scale Hydrogen-Air Rotating Detonation Combustor-Stator Integrated System

Abstract A first-of-its-kind large-eddy simulation (LES) study is conducted to numerically investigate the combustion dynamics as well as aero-thermal phenomena in a full-scale non-premixed hydrogen-air rotating detonation engine (RDE) integrated with nozzle guide vanes (NGV) acting as the turbine stator. The LES framework incorporates hydrogen-air detailed chemical kinetics and adaptive mesh refinement. A comparative analysis is carried out for two operating conditions with different fuel/air mass flow rates but global equivalence ratio of unity. The LES model is validated against experimental data with respect to detonation wave speed/height, wave dynamics, and axial static pressure distribution. Numerical results indicate significant deflagrative combustion occurring in the fill region near the inner wall due to formation of recirculation zones in the injection near-field driven by the backward facing step. The leading detonation wave is found to be trailed by an azimuthal reflected-shock combustion wave, which consumes unburned vitiated reactants that leak through the main detonation wave. The detonation wave characteristics do not change appreciably with the presence of NGV. The exit flow is found to be nearly fully subsonic and supersonic for the low and high mass flux conditions, respectively. The presence of NGV renders the flow more axial, and significantly impacts the exit Mach number and total pressure. The low mass flux operating point, despite exhibiting more deflagrative losses within the combustor, yields overall lower pressure drop from plenum to exhaust, mainly attributed to lower pressure drop across the injectors.

Effect of micro-nano hybrid SiCp on microstructure and mechanical properties of 7075Al alloy

In this study, micro-nano hybrid SiCp/7075Al composites were successfully prepared for the first time by ultrasonic-assisted semi-solid stirring casting method. The effects of micro-nano hybrid SiCp on the microstructure and mechanical properties of 7075 Al were studied. The results show that the distribution of SiCnp and micron SiCp in the microstructure was uniform. During the extrusion process, most of the micron SiCp were subjected to significant load and broken, which increased the contact area with the matrix and promoted the interface bonding. In addition, the enhanced interfacial interaction promoted the formation of MgAl2O4 phase, which significantly improved the mechanical properties. SiCnp not only had a significant effect on grain refinement, but also promoted the enrichment of Cu, accelerated the formation of GP zone, and promoted the formation of more nano-MgZn2 precipitates. The yield strength and the elastic modulus of micro-nano hybrid SiCp/7075 Al composites reached 450 MPa and 94 GPa, respectively. The synergistic effect of SiCnp and micron SiCp could produce composite strengthening effects such as load transfer strengthening, thermal mismatch strengthening and Orowan strengthening. Moreover, a large number of dislocation pile-ups were observed near the interface between micron and nano SiCp and Al matrix. This leaded to a higher work hardening rate of the composites as the particle content increases. The higher work hardening rate enhanced the strain hardening ability of the material during plastic deformation, thereby significantly improving the tensile strength and elongation of the material.

Self-excited force characteristics and flow mechanisms of a 5:1 rectangular cylinder in torsional vortex-induced vibration and flutter

In this paper, the self-excited force characteristics, flow rules and vibration mechanisms of a 5:1 rectangular cylinder in torsional vortex-induced vibration (VIV) and flutter were investigated through wind tunnel tests and numerical simulations. The nonlinearity of the self-excited lifting moment is not monotonous but exhibits a peak within a specific reduced wind speed and amplitude range. The amplitude-dependent characteristics of dimensionless work and aerodynamic damping are the primary reasons for non-divergent vibration, which is mainly influenced by the amplitude-dependent phase difference. The reduced wind speed significantly affects the formation zone length and convection speed of the leading-edge vortex, thereby determining the distribution of surface pressure phase difference and dimensionless work. As the reduced wind speed increases, there is a positive and negative alternation in dimensionless work, leading to the occurrence of torsional VIV and flutter. While the torsional amplitude does not affect the distribution of phase difference, it merely influences the formation zone length, resulting in amplitude-dependent dimensionless work and accounting for the non-divergent vibration. The characteristics of vortex convection, pressure phase variation and dimensionless work of the 5:1 rectangular cylinder in torsional VIV and flutter follow similar rules, indicating that the two vibration forms share the same inherent essence.

Degradation of LaPO4-8YSZ composite thick thermal barrier coatings by molten calcium-magnesium-aluminosilicate

The effect of LaPO4 content on the calcium-magnesium-aluminosilicates (CMAS) corrosion resistance of the plasma-sprayed LaPO4-8YSZ composite coatings at 1250 °C was investigated. The microstructure and corrosion products of the LaPO4-8YSZ composite coatings after CMAS attack was determined by using SEM/TEM/SAED. The results indicated that LaPO4 was segregated at the grain boundaries of the composite coatings and the addition of LaPO4 into 8YSZ coating increased their CMAS reactivity, which led to the formation of planar reaction zone while the CMAS infiltration depth decreased from ∼658 μm to ∼119 μm. The CMAS infiltration depth of the composite coatings firstly increased with LaPO4 addition, reaching its maximum for the composite coating with 5 wt% LaPO4, and then showed a downtrend. For the composite coating with 20 wt% LaPO4, a dense apatite layer formed in the corrosion front, which inhibited CMAS penetration and resulted in the shallowest CMAS infiltration depth among the test samples.

Analysis of stress field in the head area of the Three Gorges Reservoir based on coupled fluid-solid theory

The Three Gorges Reservoir, one of the largest water conservation system in the world, has been of keen interest to scientists globally since its impoundment. After construction of the dam, there has been a significant increase in seismic activity in the head area of the reservoir. It is generally accepted that earthquakes in this region are predominantly caused by the Jiuwanxi and Xiannvshan faults. This study focused on the stress changes occurring in the research area. A three-dimensional finite element model of the reservoir area was constructed using the geological structure and digital ground elevation data of the reservoir area. The fluid-solid coupling theory was applied to calculate the dynamic spatial changes in pore pressure and Coulomb stress in the faults and surrounding rocks during reservoir impoundment. The findings indicated that the added head pore water pressure at the bottom of the reservoir had a maximum impact range of approximately −2800 m on the surrounding rock, whereas the Xiannvshan and Jiuwanxi faults had a maximum diffusion range of approximately −4300 m. Rock permeability also played a significant role in the water storage process. During the 1 56 m water impoundment stage, owing to rapid water storage activity, stress could not be transmitted to both sides in a timely manner, resulting in the formation of an extreme stress change zone at −4000 m inside the fault. This may have been the reason for the frequent earthquakes during this stage. The 17 5 m cycle water storage stage also exhibited a significant degree of seismicity, potentially attributable to the long-term infiltration of reservoir water and accumulation of stress in the previous stage. The stress in the study area at the four stages are in a process of accumulation-release-accumulation-release.

Effect of wheat flour particle size on the quality deterioration of quick-frozen dumpling wrappers during freeze-thawed cycles

To reveal the effect of wheat flour particle size on the quality deterioration of quick-frozen dumpling wrappers (QFDW) during freeze-thawed (F/T) cycles, the components and physicochemical properties of wheat flours with five different particle sizes were determined and compared, along with the changes in texture and sensory properties, water status, and microstructure of QFDW during F/T cycles. Results showed that as particle size decreased, the damaged starch content and B-type starch content increased, the water absorption increased, and the gluten strength decreased. Furthermore, F/T cycles negatively impacted the quality of QFDW, evidenced by decreased texture properties and sensory evaluation score, water redistribution, higher freezable water content, and disruption of gluten network. Notably, QFDW made from larger particle size wheat flours required the shortest duration when traversing the maximum ice crystal formation zone. The QFDW made from larger particle size wheat flours formed a more stable starch-gluten matrix, which resisted the damage caused by ice recrystallization, demonstrating better water binding capacity and F/T resistance. The results may provide theoretical guidance for the study of QFDW quality and the moderate processing of wheat flour in actual production.

Effects of colemanite, heavy aggregates and lead fibers on physical mechanics and radiation shielding properties of high-performance radiation shielding concrete

Radiation shielding concrete (RSC) is widely utilized as a construction material in specialized infrastructure of nuclear power plants and medical facilities. In this study, a high-performance-RSC (HPRSC) with excellent mechanical properties and radiation shielding properties was developed based on the modified Andreasen and Andersen model. HRPSC can effectively shield a broad spectrum of radiation rays due to the combination of neutron absorber (colemanite) and gamma scatterers (e.g., heavy aggregates of barite and magnetite, and lead fibers). The experiment results revealed that the compressive strength of HPRSC exceeds 70 MPa due to a scientific skeleton structure design, which contributes the formation of an exceptional interfacial transition zone between the heavy aggregate/lead fiber and the cementitious matrix. The type of heavy aggregates influenced the physical mechanics properties of HPRSC. The compressive strength of magnetite-based HPRSC was higher than that of barite-based counterparts under the same dosage of heavy aggregates. The incorporation of heavy aggregates and lead fibers enhanced the γ-ray shielding capacity of HPRSC. The μ index of designed HPRSC reached 0.1988 due to the synergistic complementary effects between the cementitious matrix and the radiation shielding additives. HPRSC shows a promising application prospect in high radiation environments.

Experimental and numerical investigation of water flow in different media models at multiple scales

ABSTRACT The study of the flow behavior in pores, fractures, and pore-fracture dual media plays a crucial role in understanding the mechanisms of sudden water inrush and sand flow. In this study, laboratory experiments were conducted using a custom-made transparent porous model to investigate the flow characteristics of fluids in complex media. Additionally, finite element simulations were employed to explore the flow features at multiple scales. A detailed analysis at the micrometer scale was conducted to examine the variations in the water velocity, volumetric flow rate, Reynolds number, flow field, and permeability under different porosity and pressure drop conditions. The results indicate that within the studied range of flow velocities and pressures, the fluid flow in all the media models adhered to Darcy’s law. The improvement in structural connectivity in the random pore model has made the flow channels of fluids in the random pore network more diverse, resulting in an increase in the peak water flow velocity from 4.89E–5 m/s to 4.19E–4 m/s. The fluid accelerated while bypassing the protruding solid particles, resulting in the formation of high-velocity zones in the vicinity. As the pressure drop increases, the volume flow rate of the random dual-medium model with a porosity of 0.6 can increase to 1.01E–9 m3/s, with the highest growth rate. We also simulate the fluid flow of a regular dual-medium model at different porosities and find that the permeability rapidly increases from 5.65E–13 m2 to 1.01E–11 m2, demonstrating that the presence of fractures can significantly improve the permeability performance of the medium. The research findings deepen our understanding of the migration behavior of water in complex geological environments and provide theoretical guidance for groundwater resource protection and underground engineering.

Structure Formation in Engineered Wood Using Wood Waste and Biopolyurethane.

This research aims to find suitable processing methods that allow the reuse of wood waste to produce wood waste-based engineered wood logs for construction that meet the strength requirements for structural timber for sawn structural softwood. Three types of wood waste were examined: wood packaging waste (W), waste from the construction and furniture industry (PLY), and door manufacturing waste (DW). The wood waste was additionally crushed and sieved, and the granulometric composition and shape of the particles were evaluated. The microstructure of the surface of the wood waste particles was also analysed. A three-component biopolyurethane adhesive was used to bind wood waste particles. An analysis of the contact zones between the particles and biopolyurethane was performed, and the adhesion efficiency of their surfaces was evaluated. Analysis was performed using tensile tests, and the formation of contact zones was analysed with a scanning electron microscope. The wood particles were chemically treated with sodium carbonate, calcium hypochlorite, and peroxide to increase the efficiency of the contact zones between the particles and the biopolyurethane adhesive. Chemical treatment made fillers up to 30% lighter and changed the tensile strength depending on the solution used. The tensile strength of engineered wood prepared from W and treated with sodium carbonate increased from 8331 to 12,702 kPa compared to untreated waste. Additionally, the compressive strength of engineered wood made of untreated and treated wood waste particles was determined to evaluate the influence of the wood particles on the strength characteristics.

Formation of the machine-building zone of the Arkhangelsk Region forest complex as a response to sanctions

Formation of the machine-building zone of the Arkhangelsk Region forest complex as a response to sanctions

A workflow for estimating the CO2 injection rate of a vertical well in a notional storage project

A workflow that considers regulatory and technical constraints applicable to subsurface CO2 injection projects was developed to determine fluid injection rates accurately. The constraints considered include, but are not limited to, maximum injection bottomhole pressure, maximum injection pressure at the surface or wellhead pressure, and threshold vibration velocity. The workflow was developed and tested using a reservoir model developed from site characterization data of an Illinois Basin CarbonSAFE Phase II notional storage project. The Nexus® reservoir simulation software suite and the Peng-Robinson equation-of-state were used to perform compositional dynamic simulations. Reservoir modeling results indicated that (1) the regulated and technically feasible CO2 injection rate of a vertical well is predetermined by the most stringent parameter amongst maximum bottomhole pressure, maximum wellhead (surface injection) pressure, and threshold vibration velocity constraints; (2) the threshold vibrational velocity constraint predetermines CO2 injection rate for high-permeability injection zones; and (3) the most stringent constraint for low-permeability injection zones could be either the maximum bottomhole pressure or the maximum wellhead pressure. However, the injection rate may be further reduced if faults or hydraulically conductive fractures are present within the injection zone and adjacent formations because the pressure required to reactivate the faults may be lower than maximum injection bottomhole pressure, maximum wellhead pressure, and vibrational velocity constraints.

Experimental study of the effect of crude oil water content on boilover fire

When a tank experiences a boilover fire, oil droplets splash, heat release rate and flame height increase, posing significant hazards. Water is a necessary condition for boilover to occur, but current research mainly focuses on boilover caused by water layer, neglecting the influence of water content inherent in crude oil on boilover phenomena. In this study, crude oil with a water content ranging from 0.26 % to 3 % was utilized, and a series of boilover fire experiments were conducted by varying the presence or absence of a water layer and the initial oil thickness and by carrying out a series of boilover fire experiments focusing on the effect of water content on the boilover phenomenon. The results indicate that emulsified crude oil has a droplet micro-explosion phase during the stable combustion stage. When no water layer is present, the boilover process duration is brief, and the transient injection effect is notable, with boilover intensity increasing with water content. Upon adding a water layer, emulsified water abbreviates the boilover onset time, diminishes the combustion rate, and promotes the formation of the hot zone. The upper and lower limit values of the hot zone temperature decrease with increasing water content, while the temperature difference remains essentially unaffected, remaining constant at about 50 °C. Boilover intensity exhibits a nonlinear relationship with increasing water content, peaking at 2 % water content. The pre-boilover burned mass ratio remains relatively stable, maintained between 12 % and 15 % across all working conditions. Both the splash range and maximum heat flux increase with initial oil layer thickness but show no significant change with water content. Moreover, the safety distance corresponding to the heat radiation threshold exceeds the splash distance, indicating that heat radiation hazards predominate. The results of this paper will help provide guidance for fighting emulsified crude oil fires.

Gold concentration during polyphase deformation: Insights from Boulanger Project, French Guiana

The Boulanger gold deposit is hosted within the Rhyacian greenstone belts from the Guiana shield located within the North Guiana Through, French Guiana. The Boulanger deposit is characterized by a complex polyphase deformation and mineralization history involving a coaxial shortening phase, D1, followed by a transcurrent deformation event, D2. The main ore bodies consist of a series of quartz-tourmaline-pyrite-carbonate extension and shear veins in response to NNE-SSW shortening event (D1), and adjacent altered host-rocks. The proximal alteration bordering the vein system is characterized by pyrite-tourmaline (main ore assemblage). This shortening event is followed by transcurrent deformation, D2. Locally, D2 is expressed by the formation of N020-030 narrow zones (F2 axial trace) along which D1 structures are reoriented. The structural analysis performed on both S1/0 foliation and on geophysical data interpretation highlights the presence of Type-1 interference patterns. These zones are associated with significant gold enrichment and the presence of a new ore assemblage dominated by pyrrhotite-pyrite. Quantitative structural analysis approach, based on measured foliations (S1/0) and gold grade demonstrates that D2-related folding is associated with important gold endowment. These findings suggest that the characterization of the exact fold interference pattern is fundamental for the targeting of favorable enriched zones at the deposit scale.

(Keynote) Automated / Autonomous Platforms for Synthesis, Purification, and Characterization of Quantum Dots

Controlling composition, structure, and thus properties of nanomaterials continues to be of importance to numerous fields. For example, applications of quantum dots range from displays and bioimaging, to metal nanoparticles for (electro-) catalytic conversions. The vastness of synthesis parameter space, in combination with still limited understanding of the nucleation and growth mechanisms for many quantum dots systems still hampers progress in identifying nanomaterials with desired properties for existing and newly envisioned purposes. Furthermore, the identification of optimal synthesis recipes for these nanostructures remains a major hurdle.This presentation will report on the development and application a number of enabling capabilities for the synthesis and characterization of quantum dots, achieved through reactor engineering. We demonstrate how the use of automated flow reactors not only helps in run-to-run reproducibility but also in uncovering mechanistic information. Examples include reactors with dedicated nucleation, growth, and shell formation zones, and investigation that revealed mechanistic insight of how water concentration affects QD synthesis outcome. We also employed an autonomous flow reactor system to map synthesis parameter space of specific QD systems, a project that relied on fast, fully automated in-situ characterization using UV-vis or photo-luminescence in combination with multi-step machine learning workflows The utility of flow reactors, however, is limited when considering chemistries with longer reaction times. Hence, more recently we developed a fully automated batch reactor for parameter space mapping of QD synthesis via hot injection, the most frequently used method in both QD research and production at scale. This batch platform is being augmented with purification capabilities, to address some of the challenges of in-line, in-situ characterization of raw reaction mixtures, and to enable using advanced optical and structural characterization methods to provide insight into the actual structure of the QD materials.

Impact of human micro-movements on breathing zone and thermal plume formation

To enhance the realism and precision of indoor environment assessments and the evaluation of human health risks using computational fluid dynamics (CFD), it is crucial to accurately replicate human shape and physiological functions. This study investigates the influence of micro-movements resulting from posture control on the human breathing zone (BZ) using CFD analysis. A Computer-Simulated Person (CSP) incorporating a sophisticated nasal cavity model and multi-node thermoregulation was employed to precisely predict the microclimate around the human body, including the BZ. Two types of movements were considered to replicate micro-movements of a standing human body: angular and linear movements. The BZs were evaluated based on the Scale for Ventilation Efficiency (SVE) 4 and 5 for exhalation and inhalation modes, respectively. While the distribution of exhaled air remained generally consistent, distinct differences were observed in inhaled air distribution. In a representative case with a maximum angular velocity of 4°/s, the horizontal length increased by 12 cm, and the vertical distance of the SVE5>10 % distribution decreased by 14 cm compared to the stationary case. Linear movement, particularly in the mediolateral (ML) direction, led to a horizontal expansion of the inhaled air distribution. The findings of this study suggest that replicating human micro-movements has a minimal impact on general indoor climate analysis but significantly enhances the accuracy of predicting breathing air quality.

Influence of confining pressure on rock fracture propagation under particle impact

Revealing the influence of confining pressure on the propagation and formation mechanism of rock cracks under particle impact is significant to deep rock excavation. In this study, the three-dimensional fracture reconstruction of the rock after particle impact was carried out by CT scanning, and the stress and crack field evolution of the rock under particle impact were analyzed by PFC2D discrete element numerical simulation. The results demonstrate that after particles impact, a fracture zone and intergranular main crack propagation zone are formed in the rock. The shear stress and tensile stress caused by compressive stress are the main reasons for the formation of the fracture zone, while the formation of the intergranular main crack propagation zone is mainly due to tangential derived tensile stress. The confining pressure induces prestress between rock particles such that the derived tensile stress needs to overcome the initial compressive stress between the particles to form tensile fractures. And the increase in the confining pressure leads to increases in the proportion of shear cracks and friction effects between rock particles, resulting in an increase in energy consumption for the same number of cracks. From a macroscopic perspective, the confining pressure can effectively inhibit the generation of cracks.

Effects of submergence ratio on flow around a circular pier in combined wave–current flows using particle image velocimetry

The present study illustrates an experimental investigation of flow hydrodynamics in the vicinity of a submerged circular pier across various submergence levels under only current and wave–current combined flow conditions. The instantaneous velocity data are collected using particle image velocimetry for three distinct frequencies of waves to determine the influence of wave superimposition on the current-induced turbulence parameters. The distribution of phase averaged turbulence quantities, such as mean velocities, Reynolds shear stress, turbulent kinetic energy, flow patterns, and vorticity analysis by Q-criterion, are presented. The results provide insight into the impacts of wave frequency and submergence ratio on the formation of horseshoe vortices, trailing vortex, and reverse flow zones. From the results it is observed that a decrease in the submergence level of the structure causes the formation of strong horseshoe vortices and reverse flow zones in the absence of waves. Also, an increase in wave frequency intensifies the turbulence kinetic energy at the upstream of the pier and eddy generation behind the pier. The present findings highlight the effects of pier submergence and wave characteristics, such as frequency, wave height, and wave period, on flow patterns and turbulent flow characteristics and aid in the design of marine structures. Furthermore, experimental data serve as a valuable resource for validating theoretical or mathematical models related to combined wave–current environments.