Formal Support Networks Research Articles

Parenting support in the context of poverty: a meta-synthesis of the qualitative evidence

From the outset, providing support for parents has been a key feature of New Labour's policy agenda, but 'good' parenting, and child health and well-being are often undermined by the stresses associated with poverty. Moreover, there may be a gap between policy aims, and the perceptions and motivations of those intended to benefit. Drawing on a systematic review of qualitative studies of low-income parents, the present paper explores their experiences of informal and formal support networks, considering their strengths and weaknesses in the context of poverty. Traditional systematic review methods were used to locate and critically appraise 12 UK qualitative studies, which took as their focus parents' subjective experiences of caring for children in impoverished circumstances. Meta-ethnographic methods were then used to produce a qualitative meta-synthesis of findings. Exploring the similarities and differences in parents' accounts across studies identified positive and negative aspects of social support as a resource for poor parents. The review suggests that naturally occurring support systems do provide both material and emotional help to parents, but that such support has certain inherent drawbacks. It is not universally available and, in some circumstances, carries negative associations for poor families. Low-income lone mothers in particular enjoy smaller support networks, and are more reliant on mutual support than those in two-parent families. Paradoxically, it is the most socially isolated women who are least willing to seek professional help. Overall, low-income parents' experiences of formal health and social welfare agencies are mixed, and not invariably positive. In conclusion, this paper suggests that formal support services have the potential to fill gaps in informal support systems for poor families, but only if these are provided in ways which are sensitive to their needs. Therefore, parents' perspectives are essential to informing service design, development and evaluation in health and social care.

A historical perspective on the contrasting experiences of nurses as research subjects and research activists

According to the spectrum of opinion, nursing research appears to be alive but vulnerable, poised for further growth but still liable to wither if starved of funding. By using a historical approach to provide an understanding of the present, this paper hopes to offer some guidance for the healthy future of nursing research. Documentary and oral evidence has been cited to compare the experiences of nurses as the subjects of research and as researchers themselves. Investigations on recruitment and retention in nursing undertaken prior to World War II tended to give monocausal explanations for complex problems. As a result, pioneer nurse researchers had to work in an atmosphere of suspicion from sections of the profession and little regard from more established professions. The paper demonstrates that in order to make progress they used formal and informal support networks. Contemporary practitioners could identify similar networks.

Defining dignity in terminally ill cancer patients: a factor-analytic approach.

The construct of 'dignity' is frequently raised in discussions about quality end of life care for terminal cancer patients, and is invoked by parties on both sides of the euthanasia debate. Lacking in this general debate has been an empirical explication of 'dignity' from the viewpoint of cancer patients themselves. The purpose of the present study was to use factor-analytic and regression methods to analyze dignity data gathered from 213 cancer patients having less than 6 months to live. Patients rated their sense of dignity, and completed measures of symptom distress and psychological well-being. The results showed that although the majority of patients had an intact sense of dignity, there were 99 (46%) patients who reported at least some, or occasional loss of dignity, and 16 (7.5%) patients who indicated that loss of dignity was a significant problem. The exploratory factor analysis yielded six primary factors: (1) Pain; (2) Intimate Dependency; (3) Hopelessness/Depression; (4) Informal Support Network; (5) Formal Support Network; and (6) Quality of Life. Subsequent regression analyses of modifiable factors produced a final two-factor (Hopelessness/Depression and Intimate Dependency) model of statistical significance. These results provide empirical support for the dignity model, and suggest that the provision of end of life care should include methods for treating depression, fostering hope, and facilitating functional independence.

Elder stress: The functionality paradigm.

This study evaluated the relationships between an elders' functional skills, and their use of ecosystemic support and internal coping strategies to buffer a major stressor ' s potential impacts. McGee's (1998) Life Span Developmental model was employed in this research of 83 seniors. Seniors with high functional skills and those with very low functional skills did not appear to be as impacted as those seniors whose functional skills had deteriorated slightly and who employed emotion-focused coping to manage the impacts of a major stressor. Ecosystemic support, which included both formal and informal support networks, did not appear to provide an adequate buffer from the stress-related symptoms. The usage of this strategy was noticeably impacted by the deterioration of the size and frequency of contact seniors experience with their ecosystemic support systems. Seniors functional abilities and their use of emotion-focused coping were found to be the significant predictors in estimating an elders' reactions to a major stressor. Language: en

Social Capital: A Theory of Social Structure and Action. By Nan Lin. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Pp. xiv+278. $22.00 (paper).

Previous articleNext article No AccessBook ReviewSocial Capital: A Theory of Social Structure and Action. By Nan Lin. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Pp. xiv+278. $22.00 (paper).Peter AbellPeter AbellLondon School of Economics Search for more articles by this author London School of EconomicsPDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by American Journal of Sociology Volume 108, Number 6May 2003 Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/380538 Views: 346Total views on this site Citations: 1Citations are reported from Crossref Permission to reprint a book review printed in this section may be obtained only from the author.PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Rebecca H. Woodland, Rebecca Mazur Of Teams and Ties: Examining the Relationship Between Formal and Informal Instructional Support Networks, Educational Administration Quarterly 55, no.11 (Jul 2018): 42–72.https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X18785868

Health, Communication, and Aging: Cancer and Older Adults

The diagnosis of cancer is devastating to the patient as well as to the formal and informal relationship support networks of the individual who must now cope with the disease. This article highlights the significant interpersonal communication and relationship issues that affect the overall quality of life for an older individual who has been diagnosed with cancer. Scholars who study the interpersonal behavior of older adults and those who study the consequences of a devastating diagnosis within the overall health communication context can make a significant contribution to our understanding of the process of cancer communication. Not only is the diagnosis of cancer life changing for the patient, but it also changes the dynamics of each relationship between the older adult who has cancer and those who will help to care for the cancer patient both in a formal institutional setting and at home. Our understanding of communication and aging for healthy as well as ill individuals can help us to better predict and explain the complexities of cancer communication.

The role of community-based and philanthropic organizations in meeting cancer patient and caregiver needs.

We examined information from community-based and philanthropic organizations to document the cancer-related services that are currently available, establish which services are still needed, and determine who utilizes these formal support networks. In Phase I, 32 of 41 eligible organizations participated in a survey conducted from December 1999 to March 2000. The most common mission focus among participating organizations was information/referral-centered. The most common services provided were referrals to information resources and provision of cancer-related information. Only two of the organizations in Phase I provided client demographic information and both indicated that client populations were predominantly white, female, and over age 40. Phase II of the study involved analyzing patient data from Cancer Care, Inc., a national service organizations for cancer patients. Between 1983 and 1997, there were 2,714 prostate cancer patients and 9,451 breast cancer patients included in the Cancer Care database. Their most commonly reported problems were related to personal adjustment to illness, financial, home care, and transportation needs. There were significant differences in problems reported depending upon age and disease status. In addition, the results of this study support the idea that those at highest risk for developing and dying of cancer are the least likely to utilize formal support networks. Further, a gap in service provision for assistance with practical needs (e.g., transportation, home care, child care, psychosocial support) was identified. Due to the increasing use of outpatient care for cancer patients, a greater demand for practical assistance can be expected in the future. The availability of practical services will need to be increased in order to effectively meet cancer patient needs.

Community mental health nurses in Wales: self-reported stressors and coping strategies.

There is evidence to suggest that community mental health nurses experience stress and burnout related to their work. Previous research has been limited by a number of methodological problems. One of the problems is that studies have tended to have small or unrepresentative samples, and many researchers have only examined mental health nurses as a subset within their research, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The All-Wales Community Mental Health Nurse (CMHN) Stress Study was set up in order to address this issue. The total population of CMHNs in Wales was surveyed (N = 614) and 301 (49%) responded. The questionnaire booklet contained a number of validated instruments to measure stress, burnout, and coping, together with a demographic questionnaire. The demographic questionnaire included three open ended-questions. These questions were asked in order in determine the CMHNs' own views of the sources of stress in the workplace, and to investigate which methods they use to cope. This paper reports the findings from the content analysis of the three questions. The results from the other measures are reported in the companion paper (Edwards et al. 2000). The most frequently cited stressors included perceived workload, excessive paperwork and administration, and a broad spectrum of client-related issues. Coping strategies that CMHNs reported using included peer support, a range of personal strategies such as relaxation, and belief in self and supervision. It appears from the findings that a range of factors such as organizational pressures and factors related to working with patients are important in determining stress levels, and that informal rather than formal support networks are the preferred methods of coping.

Families and formal service usage: Stability and change in patterns of interface

Understanding the relationship between formal and informal support is becoming increasingly important for those involved in caring for the elderly (Bass et al., 1996; McAuley et al., 1990). As the elderly become more dependent on formal services and changes in demographics result in more women in the workforce and fewer available informal caregivers, there is a need for organized and efficient formal support networks that work well with, rather than replace, family helpers (Aneshensel et al., 1995; Scott & Roberto, 1985). Several models of the interface of formal-informal support have been proposed in the literature (e.g. Cantor, 1975; Edelman, 1986; Greene, 1983; Litwak, 1985). A sample of 305 primary family caregivers were interviewed at three points in time regarding their use of formal services and assistance from additional family members. It was possible to classify the sample initially into three types of family/formal interface: isolates who receive no help from family or formal services, family dependent who are assisted by kin but not formal services, and formal who receive some assistance from paid services.These groups were examined over time for stability of group membership and nursing home placement. Characteristics of caregivers and their relatives who fell in each category were also examined. There were differences in caregiver stress and rates of subsequent placement rates for people in the three initial categories of informal/formal interface (isolates, family dependent, formal), but moving from one category to another during the course of the study was more strongly associated both with care-related stress and placing the person with dementia into an institution than was stable membership in the other categories.

Infant crying, risk status and social support in families of preterm and term infants

Infant crying influences the caregiver and the broader caregiving environment. In this study, cry acoustics were recorded and acoustically analyzed from a sample of fullterm and preterm infants at 40 weeks gestational age, along with the medical risk and socioeconomic status (SES) of the family. Following factor analysis of the cry acoustics, cry factors, along with medical risk and SES were used to predict patterns of social support in the informal (family, friends) and formal (health care providers) social support networks at 44 weeks gestational age. One cry factor, temporal patterning, indicative of the influence of respiratory factors on the infant's cry, predicted a significant amount of variance in the amount of support from the informal network, beyond that predicted from medical risk and SES. Medical risk alone predicted the amount of contact with the formal network, and SES predicted satisfaction with help from the formal network. There were different patterns of relationship between cry acoustics and social support for families with term and preterm infants, indicating that caregivers may interpret and respond to different information in the acoustics of their infants' cries. These findings have implications for understanding how infant crying and behavior influence the caregiving environment and for the clinical management of early cry problems in families with infants differing in risk status. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Impact of Formal, Informal, and Societal Support Networks on the Psychological Well-being of Black Adolescent Mothers

Although several researchers argue that informal support systems provide economic and psychological resources for black families, little empirical research is available to inform policy and intervention programs. This article examines the impact of informal, formal, and societal support systems on the mental health of black adolescent mothers. Using the social work generalist theoretical framework, several types of resources are considered separately to determine whether they contribute similarly to psychological well-being. Data from a survey of black teenage mothers show that both lay and professional supports were important for the young mother's psychological well-being. Support from a male partner, caseworker contact, and membership in a support group decreased psychological distress and depression. Support from the male partner also enhanced psychological well-being. Support from friends, on the other hand, was associated with higher levels of psychological distress. A professional service plan that effectively incorporates informal and societal supports in a complementary manner offers the best possibility for reducing the distress of black teenage mothers.

Effectiveness of individual counseling by professional and peer helpers for family caregivers of the elderly.

This study of the effectiveness of individual counseling for daughters and daughters-in-law (N = 87) who were the primary caregivers for frail elderly parents revealed that participants who received professional counseling demonstrated significantly better outcomes than a no-treatment control group in regard to subjective well-being, level of psychiatric symptomatology, and perceived change in aspects of the caregiver-care-receiver relationship. Participants who received peer counseling demonstrated similar gains but did not improve significantly more than did control subjects in subjective well-being. Both forms of counseling had no significant effect on caregivers' formal and informal social support networks.

Doctors, Despite it All: Stresses in Medical Training

This paper considers the sources of stress encountered by medical students in their training; the effect of this stress and the coping mechanisms employed. The results show that 'worst' experiences reflect a lack of role definition and personality conflicts rather than individual clinical specialities per se. the 'best' experiences were most frequently a reverse of the worst, most notably where students felt most involved with the management of patients and their treatment. Formal support networks were not apparent but personal support systems and ways of coping emerged. It was found that rather than helping to relieve some of the stresses encountered by students in their clinical training, the medical curriculum itself often created and maintained those situations cited by students as being responsible for personal stress. The paper calls for more discussion on the meaning, limits and opportunities of one of the solutions offered by medical schools to these problems — communication skills training within...

Family members as case managers: partnership between the formal and informal support networks.

Elderly persons (mean age = 83) were randomly assigned to either an experimental group (n = 81) in which family members (mean age = 62) participated in a case management training program, or to a control group (n = 76). Following training, family members in the experimental group performed a significantly greater number of case management tasks on behalf of their elderly relatives than family members in the control group. Further, the duration of service was significantly shorter for elderly persons in the experimental group.

It's Scary but I Have a Night Light:

Private clinical practice in a small town has many features which differ from the urban practice experience. This paper discusses some of these features, such as the expectations of the community members, and formal and informal support systems and networks. Also explored are the educational, experiential, financial, and personal requisites for the role of small town private social work practitioner.

Enhancing Well-Being at the Workplace:

The workplace is a social environment and for many the opportunity for social interaction at work is a source of satisfaction. Yet, the quality of relations is variable and can be a source of anxiety, stress and work dissatisfaction. There is a need to enhance employee well-being and to improve social relations by increasing the opportunity for social support at the workplace. Two approaches are proposed: (a) as a health promotion strategy, to provide employees with training in interpersonal skills, and (b) as a component of aftercare, to foster the development of formal and informal support networks in order to reintegrate employees with emotional difficulties into the workplace. These strategies are discussed in the light of their applicability to EAP practice.

Use of informal and formal support networks by rural elderly poor.

Use of informal and formal support networks by rural elderly poor.

Rethinking early intervention

A model of early intervention that focuses on Proactive Empowerment through Partnerships (PEP) is described. The PEP model is embedded within a social systems perspective of child, parent, and family development and functioning. Social systems theory is used as a basis for an expanded definition of early intervention, a broader-based viewpoint of the effects of early intervention, and a set of decision rules regarding what types of intervention can strengthen families' abilities to meet family needs. Early intervention is defined as the provision of support to families of infants and young children from members of informal and formal social support networks. The manner in which the PEP principles and social systems notions are operationalized at the programmatic level is also described. Data are presented from a series of studies designed to validate the social systems perspective of early intervention as well as discern the impact of provision of support.

Support systems of elders in rural communities

The social network concept can be used to guide the extension of the mental health clinician's role to the practice of prevention on the local level. A model of such work is described which builds on clinical skills in collaborative consultation with formal and informal social support networks in a community. The model is illustrated and expanded through a case example of a project in a rural New England town to address issues of stress and support for frail elders. Focusing on the social network of such elders, consultations were developed to address the needs of middle generation caregivers, “natural helpers,” organized community associations, general community attitudes toward aging, and the ability of the community to secure and use outside resources. Issues of community entry through natural sponsorship are reviewed and the overall process of community empowerment is emphasized as a guiding principle in work with social networks.

Families of handicapped children: sources of stress and its amelioration.

This literature review focuses on the stresses families experience and the support factors needed to help them cope with their handicapped children. Stress often appears to increase with the age of the handicapped child, and it is also based on the daily care-giving demands of the child. Other general factors affecting stress are low family income, divorce, separation, and so forth. The father often plays a limited role in these families even when present. Both formal and informal social support networks are important to these families, often more so than professional support, which has been uneven. Families need to be treated as having individual needs that require individual solutions, even as their handicapped children. Investigators and practitioners are encouraged to continue their focus on the family as a legitimate unit of study and treatment.