Forgiveness Process Research Articles

“Mere” Christian Forgiveness: An Ecumenical Christian Conceptualization of Forgiveness through the Lens of Stress-And-Coping Theory

Forgiveness is a central theme within the Christian faith, yet Christian traditions sometimes vary in how they understand and approach the forgiveness process. Nevertheless, in this paper, we present an ecumenical model of Christian forgiveness that highlights the essential components that are shared across most Christian traditions. Importantly, rather than using a theological lens to develop and describe this model, we have primarily used a psychological lens. Specifically, we have adopted stress-and-coping theory as the psychological framework for understanding a Christian conceptualization of forgiveness. We identify four types of forgiveness (divine forgiveness, self-forgiveness, person-to-person forgiveness, and organizational–societal forgiveness) and describe a Christian conceptualization of each one, filtered through the psychological perspective of stress-and-coping theory.

Partner-Specific Dependency and Guilt as Predictors of Forgiveness in Spanish University Women.

Interpersonal transgressions often threaten the stability of the relationship. Within the scope of romantic relationships, physical violence and sexual infidelity have been considered the most difficult transgressions to forgive. Similarly, two variables considered relevant for forgiveness within the context of the couple are partner-specific dependency and the guilt experienced by the offended person. In that way, this research aims to approach the understanding of the forgiveness process of such transgressions. To this end, an experimental study was designed (N = 173 university women; Mage = 21.36, SD = 2.83), by which three indicators of forgiveness corresponding to the Transgression-Related Interpersonal Motivations Scale-18-Item Form (TRIM-18; "Revenge", "Avoidance" and "Benevolence"), partner-specific dependency and sense of guilt of the offended person were examined in the face of the transgressions of physical violence and sexual infidelity. Results revealed that violence (vs. infidelity) is less forgiven (higher "Revenge", p = .017, ηp2 = .034). In addition, the results showed that high partner-specific dependency leads to further guilt which, in turn, leads to greater forgiveness towards the partner (less "Avoidance", CIE = -.094, SE = .042, 95% CI [-.201, -.029]; and higher "Benevolence", CIE = .080, SE = .037, 95% CI [.024, .173]) in light of violence (vs. infidelity). Last but not least, the previous findings and their possible implications for romantic relationships are discussed.

Translation and a politics of forgiveness in South Africa? What black Christians believe, and white Christians do not seem to understand

Why would white South Africans want to be forgiven? Is it in order to secure their future, or to escape from their past? Why is it that some black South Africans find forgiveness to be impossible in the current social and political reality? Forgiveness, as a theological and social discourse in South Africa, is deeply contested. This research shows that black and white South Africans understand notions, and processes of forgiveness in very different ways. This is a significant problem that is compounded by the legacy of ongoing structural injustice as a result of Apartheid. Un-reconciled persons in South Africa seldom have contact with each other since the apartheid system separated persons racially, according to economic class and geographically. In at least one sense this makes a shared understanding of, and approach to, forgiveness impossible. To some extent, South Africans do not truly encounter one another in meaningful engagement, or in spaces of shared meaning. In other words, there is both a hermeneutic and a social barrier to forgiveness in South Africa. Paul Ricoeur’s notion of translation can help to engage the complexities that exist in language and the very nature of the difference between the self and the other in what is termed a “politics of forgiveness”.

Explorations of Forgiveness in Ghanaian Marriages

This study examined marital forgiveness among 40 married individuals from southern Ghana. Analysis revealed various conceptualizations of forgiveness: (1) removal of negative emotions; (2) relationship restoration; (3) forgetting; (4) revenge, punishment, or retaliation avoidance; (5) refraining from making future references to the offense; and (6) minimizing the offense. Three reasons for granting forgiveness were observed: marital stability; marital harmony; and personal well-being. The process of granting forgiveness was partly influenced by Ghanaian culture and differed for men and women. Participants emphasized bodily expressions and gestures (e.g., “kneeling”) in the forgiveness process, and more women than men demanded pacification when they were wronged. The findings have implications for understanding and improving marital relationships of individuals with African ancestry.

The Narrative Architecture of Political Forgiveness

Although there is widespread agreement with the argument that Hannah Arendt made more than half a century ago, that forgiveness is “one of the human faculties that make social change possible” (Misztal, 2011, p. 201), beyond this, there is little consensus of what it means. Applying a narrative structure to this discussion, there is a lack of clarity around questions of who, what, where, when, and why to forgive. This article will explore the politics of forgiveness in East Germany, where these issues have been hotly contested for more than 25 years. The data examined in this article suggest that the fraught process of forgiveness embodies not consensus but contest, as people disagree on key questions such as who has the right to forgive whom, for what, how long the window for the opportunity of forgiveness stays open, and even why these questions matter, not only for individuals but for the whole of society.

Faith and South African realities in practising forgiveness

The invocation and necessity of a forgiveness process have become complicated and multifaceted within the South African society with its realities of crime, poverty, racism, injustice and abuse. The rhythms of forgiveness compel us to identify our present situation. Individuals, as well as larger social groups, should begin to reflect on the importance of forgiveness to deal with transgression, violence, revenge and bitterness. I suggest that forgiveness within the Christian doctrine needs to be situated and embodied in specific habits and practices of Christian life within the South African society. In response, people in South Africa are called to remember past transgressions while pursuing the repairing and healing of the brokenness and separations in relationships by embodying forgiveness. It directs the importance of the Church’s prophetic task to proclaim the boundless gift of a constructive and transformative relationship with God, one another and God’s creation. Practising forgiveness includes a process of seeking to embody Christian forgiveness that involves the transformation of people’s lives, their world and their capability to restore communion within the field of social relations.

Investigating the relationships between unfaithful parent’s apologies, adult children’s third-party forgiveness, and communication of forgiveness following parental infidelity

Guided by theorizing on forgiveness, this study examined the impact of communication on the third-party forgiveness process for adult children following the discovery of their parents’ infidelity. Results from a series of parallel mediated regression and partial correlation analyses advance theorizing on parental infidelity and third-party forgiveness, such that they inform readers that adult children are generally more likely to forgive their unfaithful parent for engaging in infidelity when unfaithful parents offer a sincere apology to them for engaging in this transgression. Two variables—empathy and attributions—were identified as significant mediators of the third-party forgiveness process. Last, the relationships between third-party forgiveness and communicative forgiveness granting tactics were examined. These findings provide a greater understanding of the impact of communication on the forgiveness process, the communication surrounding parental infidelity, and third-party forgiveness.

Does Empathy Promotion Necessarily Lead to Greater Forgiveness? An Experimental Examination

Empathy toward one’s offender has been identified as an important variable in the forgiveness process, but elements of the empathy—forgiveness connection have yet to be explored. The current study experimentally examined both direct and indirect methods of promoting general empathy (i.e., empathy not connected specifically to the offense) toward a confederate who behaved inconsiderately, and how those methods of general empathy promotion affected forgiveness. Results demonstrated that a direct method of promoting empathy (i.e., being instructed to empathize with the confederate) increased empathy toward the confederate, whereas an indirect method (i.e., the confederate’s display of emotional vulnerability) did not significantly increase empathy. The direct promotion of general empathy facilitated higher levels of self-reported forgiveness, whereas the indirect attempt to promote general empathy resulted in lower self-reported and behavioral forgiveness. The results help to refine our understanding of the empathy—forgiveness connection by questioning the types and forms of empathy that might be useful for promoting forgiveness.

The Neural Association between Tendency to Forgive and Spontaneous Brain Activity in Healthy Young Adults.

The tendency to forgive (TTF) refers to one’s global dispositional level of forgiveness across situations and relationships. Previous brain imaging studies examined activation patterns underlying forgiving process, yet the association between individual differences in the TTF and spontaneous brain activity at resting-state remains unknown. In this study, resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to investigate the correlation between the TTF and spontaneous brain activity in a young adult sample. Participants were 178 young students (55 men) who completed the TTF scale and underwent a resting-state fMRI scan. Multiple regression analysis was conducted to assess the association between the regional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (ALFF) and TTF scores corrected for age and sex. Results showed that the ALFF value in the right dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), precuneus and inferior parietal lobule (IPL) were negatively associated with TTF scores. These findings suggest that the spontaneous brain activity of brain regions like the dmPFC, precuneus and IPL which are implicated in mentalizing and empathic response are associated with individual differences in the TTF.

Family Conflict and Forgiveness Among Survivors of Suicide

ABSTRACTThis study explored the lived experiences of immediate family members who were left behind and their intra- and interpersonal struggles with other family members and their coping efforts to overcome these struggles. We used interpretative phenomenological analysis for data collection and analysis and conducted in-depth interviews with 11 participants in Korea. Two superordinate themes, with two ordinate themes in each, were identified: (a) family conflict after a family member’s suicide (“discordant grieving” and “suicide loss as a catalyst for family conflict”) and (b) forgiveness (“struggling to forgive other family members, the deceased, and themselves” and “the process and importance of forgiveness”). The implications of these findings are discussed.

Toward an understanding of the complexities surrounding forgiveness among men struggling with paternal attachment injury

ABSTRACTThis study explores the complexities surrounding forgiveness in men struggling with early paternal attachment injury. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 young men who identified themselves as having experienced an early paternally inflicted emotional injury that critically damaged the father–son relationship bond. Findings suggest that injurers’ forgiveness promoting behaviors such as the expression of remorse and apology do not seem to contribute to forgiveness. Maternal involvement in sons’ forgiveness processes appeared to be of commanding importance, with mothers’ forgiveness facilitating that of sons. Participants showed a strong tendency to define their mothers, along with themselves, as dual victims of the paternal attachment injury. Findings are discussed in light of the existing literature on family forgiveness dynamics. It is posited that family-based models to promote forgiveness could be helpful for resolving paternal injury to the father–child relationship bond.

A narrative framework for forgiveness at the end of life: suggestions for future research in health communication

ABSTRACTForgiveness is a topic that is relevant and prominent in end of life conversations. However, while the process of forgiveness has become increasingly studied in health contexts by communication scholars, through various methodologies and across multiple contexts, research on forgiveness in the end of life context, particularly in the field of health communication, is lacking. Moreover, there is a need for qualitative inquiry, and I argue that as this research gap is addressed, the projects of the medical humanities and hospice can—and should—inform how health communication scholars situate and understand forgiveness at the end of life. This essay proposes an interpretive narrative approach, which grounds forgiveness within the narratives of the living and the dying, of persons and not patients.

Repairing Broken Trust Between Leaders and Followers: How Violation Characteristics Temper Apologies

This study examines the conditions under which apologies help to elicit forgiveness and restore trust following trust violations between leaders and followers. The intentionality and severity of violations are examined in a critical incident study and a laboratory study. The results support a model in which forgiveness mediates the relation of apology quality and trust. More importantly, the moderation–mediation model shows that apology quality influenced forgiveness and subsequent trust following violations that were moderate in severity–intentionality combination. The effect of apologizing affects trust directly without forgiveness when the severity–intentionality combination held minor or extreme intensity. The results suggest a range in which apologies are effective and enrich understanding of the conditions under which trust can be recovered through an apology–forgiveness process in leader–follower relationships. The contribution of the study lies in elucidating that the combination of severity and intentionality of leaders’ trust violations has greater importance than either one separately.

Seven Strategies for Treating Christians with Depression

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Christian Clients with Depression: A Practical, Tool-Based Primer by Michelle Pearce, West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Press, 2016. 248 pp. ISBN 978-1-59947-491-5 (paperback), $13.97; ISBN 978-1-59947-492-2 (e-book), $7.69. Michelle Pearce (Ph.D., Yale University) is an assistant professor and clinical psychologist at the Center for Integrative Medicine at the University of Maryland, Baltimore School of Medicine. Her research interests include integrating religion/spirituality into the practice of psychotherapy. Most clinicians are familiar with the effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), which has been adapted for Christian clients (e.g., Jennings, Davis, Hook, & Worthington, 2013). Pearce offers clinicians a primer integrating CBT with Christian spirituality (CCBT) applied by using seven specific interventions, which she calls treatment tools. Following three introductory chapters, seven chapters explain the treatment tools. Pearce begins by explaining that faith is important to psychotherapy because a religious identity and worldview govern how clients view their life experiences, including the experience of depression. She supports her claim of importance through statistics about the prevalence of depression in the context of the substantial proportion of the U.S. population who identify as Christian. Chapter two introduces assessment. Pearce explains that she and her colleagues learned from experience that not all Christians desire CCBT. Drawing on the work of Kenneth Pargament (1997), she outlines key features of spirituality, which clinicians can include when taking a client's history. Next are suggestions for assessing depression, gaining informed consent, and assessing the possible role of faith in a client's presenting problem. Chapter three completes the set of introductory chapters with guidance on introducing the CCBT model to clients. The model includes physiology with the usual CBT triad (thoughts, feelings, behavior). Following the explanation of the CCBT model, Christian spirituality is introduced by referencing three elements--beliefs, practices, resources. Part II includes the seven chapters describing the treatment tools as is organized using the following repeated subsections: chapters begin with a case study, followed by a discussion of the contribution of a Christian approach, a scientific rationale for using the tool, and Christian elements related to the specific tool (e.g., Scripture). Details on how to use the tool in therapy include activities and a sample clinician-client dialogue. I will provide a brief parenthetical description of the seven tools so you can get a sense of what to expect. I use Pearce's words for these interventions. 1. Renewing your mind: Planting truth (learning to memorize scripture and use prayer to create a positive mindset). 2. Changing your mind: Metanoia (using Christian truths to combat common maladaptive cognitions). 3. Finding God and the blessing in suffering: Redemptive refraining (look for God at work; strategies to reframe suffering). 4. Reaching out and connecting (the importance of social interaction; strategies to connect with supportive others in a faith community). 5. Letting go and letting God: Acceptance and forgiveness (assessment of hurts and resentment, a process of forgiveness and surrender to find intrapersonal freedom). 6. Saying thanks: Gratitude (the value of increasing the expression of gratitude, which can counter some dimensions of depression). 7. Giving back: Service (improve one's mental state through acts of love and kindness). Pearce concludes her text with a summary chapter and recommendations for preventing relapse such as finding ways for clients to practice their CCBT tools, developing hope, and engaging local support. Suggestions for modifying treatment and seeking clergy consultation are also included. Three appendices include: (a) a recommended role for clergy accompanied by a list of signs of depression, (b) a list of religiously integrated manuals and workbooks, and (c) client handouts (e. …

Exploring the psychological processes underlying interpersonal forgiveness: The superiority of motivated reasoning over empathy

When, why, and how does interpersonal forgiveness occur? These questions have generated a wealth of findings, from which have emerged two broad theoretical perspectives by which to understand the forgiveness process. One perspective suggests that empathy underlies forgiveness, whereas the other suggests that motivated reasoning underlies forgiveness. Of note is that the two models have not been directly tested against one another. This lack of comparison between the models represents an important barrier to a fuller and richer understanding of the nature of forgiveness. The present research addresses this gap. To provide a test of the two perspectives, we first synthesize and link prior research associated with motivated reasoning to advance a more general model of motivated reasoning. This model hypothesizes that relationship closeness leads to a desire to maintain the relationship, this desire leads to motivated reasoning, and this motivation leads to interpersonal forgiveness. We then compare the relative ability of the two perspectives to predict forgiveness when controlling for one another. When estimated simultaneously, the model of motivated interpersonal forgiveness significantly predicts forgiveness, whereas the empathy model does not. The superiority of the model of motivated interpersonal forgiveness replicates across three studies.

Imperfect forgiveness The pragmaticality, prudentiality and ethicality of human forgiveness

The purpose of this paper is to approach the act and process of forgiveness as an imperfect human ability for peace, exploring the pragmaticality, prudentiality and ethicality of human forgiveness before moral wrongs. To conduct my research, firstly I will assume the epistemological turn that has been developed at the UNESCO Chair of Philosophy for Peace from Universitat Jaume I. This epistemological turn means we no longer work with a negative definition of peace but a positive one, that is, we do not define peace as the absence of violence, but as the presence of social justice. Secondly, I will establish a dialogue between the Philosophy for Peace approach and Christian theology as a key element for grasping a deeper understanding of the act and process of forgiveness, since this imperfect human ability of forgiveness has been a core theme of the Christian religion during the last two thousand years. It is argued that imperfect human forgiveness is pragmatically, prudentially and ethically adequate when we need to address different moral wrongs in different contexts of violence. Therefore, fostering forgiveness in those settings may help us to build more peaceful societies, as in the same way that we have learnt to hurt each other, we can learn to forgive one another.

What determines forgiveness in close relationships? The role of post-transgression trust.

Relationship closeness is one of the best predictors of forgiveness. But what is the process by which closeness encourages forgiveness? Across three studies, we employed a mix of experimental and correlational designs with prospective (N=108), scenario (N=71), and recall (N=184) paradigms to test a multiple mediation model. We found consistent evidence that the positive association between relationship closeness and forgiveness may be explained by levels of post-transgression trust in the offender. Moreover, trust always played the main mediating role in the forgiveness process, even when taking into account several transgression-specific variables associated with both trust and forgiveness (e.g., apology). We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of trust as a key indicator of forgiveness in close relationships.

Dementia spousal caregivers and past transgressions: Measuring and understanding forgiveness experiences

ABSTRACTThe transition from “wife” to “caregiver” for a cognitively impaired husband can be an overwhelming experience. Communication patterns change and small conflicts can grow, at times bringing angry feelings and new burdens. Engagement with forgiveness processes may benefit wives by lowering resentment over past tensions, restoring trust, and enhancing the overall caregiving experience. This study examined the utility of the Enright Forgiveness Inventory (EFI) within a sample of caregiving wives. Our intent was to better understand this population’s experience with forgiveness when other contextual factors were likely to influence this process. Forgiveness scores on the EFI were positively related to the cognitive status of the care recipient, a particularly important finding for clinical intervention, and inversely related to marital distress and state anxiety.

A Way Forward for Spirituality, Resilience, and International Social Science

This special issue on spirituality in resilience processes across international contexts helps clarify a three-pronged research agenda for the future study of trauma and disasters by psychologists of religion and spirituality. First, the special issue demonstrates the value of expanding from U.S.-based theories, data, models, and practices to incorporate a wider repertoire of international research (e.g., Western Africa, Romania, Haiti, China, and diverse additional contexts). Second, the special issue suggests that the topic of resilience defies the constraints of traditional variance-based research methodologies and requires the adoption of newer process-based research methodologies in order to study longitudinal phenomena, such as cosmology episodes, post-traumatic growth, and forgiveness processes. Third, the special issue emphasizes the need for psychologists of religion and spirituality to collaborate more frequently with allied social scientists (e.g., sociologists of religion and scholars of management, spirituality and religion) in order to comprehend the systemic, multilevel complexities of large-scale trauma.

Forgiveness, Stress, and Health: a 5-Week Dynamic Parallel Process Study.

Psychological stress is a well-known risk factor for poor health, and recent research has suggested that the emotion-focused coping process of forgiveness may help mitigate these effects. To date, however, no studies have examined how levels of forgiveness, stress, and health fluctuate and interrelate over time. We addressed this issue by examining how forgiveness, stress, and mental and physical health symptoms change and relate to one another over 5weeks. We hypothesized that increases in state levels of forgiveness would be associated with decreases in perceptions of stress, which would in turn be related to decreases in mental and physical health symptoms. A reverse effects model was also tested. We recruited a large, community-based sample of 332 young, middle-aged, and older adults (16-79years old; M age = 27.9). Each week for 5weeks, participants reported on their levels of state forgiveness, perceived stress, and mental and physical health symptoms. Levels of forgiveness, stress, and mental and physical health symptoms each showed significant change and individual variability in change over time. As hypothesized, increases in forgiveness were associated with decreases in stress, which were in turn related to decreases in mental (but not physical) health symptoms (i.e., forgiveness → stress → health). The reverse effects model (i.e., health → stress → forgiveness) provided a relatively poorer fit. This study is the first to provide prospective, longitudinal evidence showing that greater forgiveness is associated with less stress and, in turn, better mental health. Strategies for cultivating forgiveness may thus have beneficial effects on stress and health.