Forest In Mexico Research Articles

Genomic-based microsatellite development for Ternstroemia (Pentaphylacaceae) and transferability to other Ericales

BackgroundThe genus Ternstroemia is associated with the vulnerable tropical montane cloud forest in Mexico and with other relevant vegetation types worldwide. It contains threatened and pharmacologically important species and has taxonomic issues regarding its species limits. This study describes 38 microsatellite markers generated using a genomic-based approach.Methods and resultsWe tested 23 of these markers in a natural population of Ternstroemia lineata. These markers are highly polymorphic (all loci polymorphic with 3–14 alleles per locus and expected heterozygosity between 0.202 and 0.908), most of them (19 out of 23) are in Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium and free of null alleles (18 out of 23). Also we found no evidence of linkage among them. Finally, we tested the transferability to six other American species of Ternstroemia, two other Pentaphylacaceae species, and four species from different families within the order Ericales.ConclusionsThese molecular resources are promising tools to investigate genetic diversity loss and as barcodes for ethnopharmacological applications and species delimitation in the family Pentaphylacaceae and some Ericales, among other applications.

Cinnamom verum Plantations in the Lowland Tropical Forest of Mexico Are Affected by Phytophthora cinnamomi, Phylogenetically Classified into Phytophthora Subclade 7c

Cinnamon is a tree introduced to the lowlands of Mexico in the mid-16th century, but it spread to other places at the beginning of the 20th century due to its important commercial value as an aromatic spice. In the state of Veracruz, symptoms of dieback have been observed in 12-year-old cinnamon plantations cultivated in an agroforestry system, causing concern among producers. For this reason, the present investigation was carried out to determine the causal agent of these symptoms observed in cinnamon trees. Fifty symptomatic plants were recovered from established plantations. One hundred cinnamon root fragments showing dieback were selected and separated; isolates were made from tissue showing crown and root rot on clarified juice V-8 agar medium. After eight days, the growth of whitish coralloid mycelium with characteristics similar to the Phytophthora oomycete was consistently observed. Subsequently, the identity corresponding to P. cinnamomi was confirmed by morphological, taxonomic studies and Bayesian inference of the rDNA internal transcribed spacer. The pathogenicity test was performed on 20 6-month-old cinnamon plants grown in pots by inoculating 2.5 × 104/mL of zoospores around the roots. Control plants were inoculated with sterile distilled water and kept in a greenhouse under conditions controlled. After five weeks, symptoms of root rot were observed in the inoculated plants; however, the control group plants remained healthy. The results showed that P. cinnamomi subclade 7c was responsible for the symptoms observed in lowland cinnamon plantations in Mexico. Our findings suggest that this phytopathogen is a new threat for cinnamon growers; likewise, it is recommended that growers implement management strategies to avoid its introduction into nurseries or new plantations that could be susceptible to this pathogen.

Physiological ecology and vulnerability to climate change of a microendemic, habitat-specialist lizard in a tropical dry forest of Mexico

The role of physiology on habitat specialization in terrestrial ectotherms constitutes a rarely addressed topic, despite the fact that habitat specialization often involves the coadaptation of multiple physiological traits, which in turn may confer a higher vulnerability to climate change. Here we documented aspects of the thermal and hydric physiology of Sceloporus macdougalli, a lizard restricted to granite boulders in a tiny area of a tropical dry forest of Mexico, and estimated its vulnerability to climate change. We aimed to determine the physiological and behavioral adjustments used by this species to cope with a striking seasonal environment, to elucidate whether ecophysiology could help explain its habitat specialization, microendemicity, and how increasing environmental temperatures will restrict activity of this species. The effectiveness of thermoregulation and indications of water conservation strategies changed markedly over seasons. As expected, granite boulders and associated vegetation were more suitable for thermo- and hydroregulation than surrounding (and unoccupied) habitat. However, our model indicated that by 2041-2060 climate change will restrict activity of this species, enhancing its threat of extinction. These results highlight the importance of granite microhabitats for the thermal and water relations of S. macdougalli, in the context of climate change, and suggest that the current habitat and range restriction of the species might be an outcome of its physiology, thus demanding urgent actions to preserve the species from extinction.

Phylogeny of the Pyrenula ochraceoflava group (Pyrenulaceae) reveals near-cryptic diversification and the inclusion of the Mazaediothecium album aggregate

In this study we present an analysis of the Pyrenula ochraceoflava group (Pyrenulaceae), focusing on the Neotropics and based on morphological, chemical, and molecular data of the mtSSU, nuLSU and ITS markers. We described three new species from tropical dry forests of Mexico, confirm the monophyly of the P. ochraceoflava group and provide evidence for the inclusion of species currently placed in the genus Mazaediothecium within Pyrenula. Pyrenula aurantiacoretis sp. nov. is characterized by an orange pigment covering the thallus in net-like fashion, muriform ascospores with 4 rows of 1–4 cells each, 12–15.5 × 8–10.5 µm, and 7-chloroemodin and emodin as major compounds. Pyrenula connexa sp. nov. is closely related to Mazaediothecium album, being characterized by mazaedioid pyrenocarps, basal and lateral excipular carbonization, highly variable mature ascospores, 1-septate to submuriform, thallus with abundant white verrucae, and lichexanthone as major compound. Pyrenula moldenkeorum sp. nov. is characterized by an orange thallus, submuriform ascospores that frequently show pigmented septa forming a cross septation pattern, 7.5–11 × 5.5–8.5 µm in size, and 7-chloroemodin and emodin as major compounds. The taxonomy of the most common and widespread species of the group, P. ochraceoflava and P. ochraceoflavens, is briefly discussed, presenting evidence to support the consideration of P. ochraceoflava as a species complex. The two species Mazaedothecium album and M. mohamedii are transferred to Pyrenula as P. aptrootiana nom. nov. [non Pyrenula alba (Schrad.) A.Massal.] and P. mohamedii comb. nov.

Effect of selective logging on the genetic differentiation of Juglans pyriformis Liebm. populations

Juglans pyriformis Liebm. (Juglandaceae) is a threatened and endemic tree that grows in the cloud forest of Mexico. Natural populations of this species have been reduced due to, among others, changes in land use, overexploitation, and logging, with probable effects on its genetic diversity and structure. To determine the levels of variation and genetic structure of two populations with different silvicultural regimes, six inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) primers were used to amplify DNA from 35 individuals from a high-logging population and 32 from a low-logging population. The results show a higher polymorphism in the low-logging population (81.5%) compared to the high-logging population (77.4%). The genetic differentiation coefficient (PhiPT) values (0.109), genetic distance (0.134) and STRUCTURE analysis (Fst = 0.2271, P = 0.04) show significant genetic differentiation between populations. Rare, private, and monomorphic bands were detected in both populations. These results confirm the trend of reduced genetic variation due to logging.

Burrow builders as ecosystem engineers for pit-building antlions (Neuroptera: Myrmeleontidae).

Burrow builders are often classified as ecosystem engineers because their digging activities regulate the availability of resources for other organisms. As antlion larvae prefer to construct their traps in bare sandy or loose soil, they could benefit from burrowing activities. We investigated the role of burrow builders as ecosystem engineers for antlions (Myrmeleontidae) in a tropical semideciduous forest in Mexico. The number of traps of antlion larvae was recorded on 30 sampling quadrats (45cm) at the entrance of burrows (of unidentified builders) and on 30 paired off-burrow quadrats. Additionally, the percentage of bare soil was estimated for the 60 quadrats sampled. Of the 30 quadrats at the entrance of burrows, a total of 336 traps were recorded, with 21 (70%) of them having at least one trap, while for the 30 off-burrows quadrats, only two (6.6%) of them had traps, just three in total. The percentage of bare soil and the abundance of traps were significantly greater in quadrats at the entrance of burrows compared to quadrats without burrows. The abundance of traps at the entrance of burrows was positively affected by the percentage of bare soil. The few traps in the off-burrows quadrats suggested that, in addition to the limited bare soil, ground compactness probably limits the establishment of antlion larvae. Otherwise, when digging, burrow builders create small patches of bare sandy soils that are used by these insects. We concluded that the ecosystem engineering effect of burrow builders is an important structuring element for antlion populations in the tropical semideciduous forest studied.

Changes in land use of temperate forests associated to avocado production in Mexico: Impacts on soil properties, plant traits and insect-plant interactions

CONTEXTTemperate forest ecosystems harbor great biodiversity and provide key ecosystem services. However, in Mexico they have been deforested for use in avocado orchards, which represents a major threat to ecosystems functioning and the conservation of biodiversity. OBJECTIVEWe evaluated the changes in soil chemical properties in a fragmented landscape of avocado agrosystems and forests in Mexico and the effects on plant quantity and quality (leaf area, canopy cover, DBH and chlorophyll content), leaf morphology, herbivory and fluctuating asymmetry in Quercus castanea and Q. obtusata. METHODSEight study sites were selected: i) areas with a more proportion of forest and less of avocado orchards, ii) areas with equal proportion of both forest and orchards, iii) areas with more proportion of orchards. In all sites, 15 adult trees at the edge and 15 trees in the interior of each fragment were selected for each oak species. Soil samples were also collected in all study sites to analyze their chemical properties. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSWe found higher concentration of Mg2+, NO3− and SO42− in soils of sites with more proportion of orchards. Total leaf area, canopy cover and DBH, as well the herbivory and FA levels were higher in these sites and in the edges of fragments for both oak species. Chlorophyll content was higher at forest edges than in the interior of fragments for all sites analyzed. Leaves of both oak species were more elongated and wider in sites with more proportion of orchards, as well in forest edges. Plant traits, herbivory and FA were related to chemical soil properties according to the proportion of forest and orchards, indicating that the mechanisms driving this interaction are scale-dependent and vary among habitat types according to proportion of forest. Herbivory was positively correlated with leaf area, DBH, chlorophyll content and FA for both oak species, indicating that herbivory increase as resource availability and quality increased along mosaic of avocado agrosystems. Our results showed that land use change of forest to avocado orchards, creates fragments with intense edge effects changing chemical soil properties, which in turn affect quantity and quality of resources to insect herbivores, as well as leaf morphology and FA levels of Q. castanea and Q. obtusata individuals. SIGNIFICANCEOur study is the first to denote the importance of the maintenance and conservation of temperate forest ecosystems and their potential functional and ecological benefits to avocado cultivation.

Fueling Mexico: Energy and Environment, 1850–1950

Fueling Mexico: Energy and Environment, 1850–1950

Livestock Grazing Impact on Species Composition and Richness Understory of the Pinus cembroides Zucc. Forest in Northeastern Mexico

In the pine forests of Mexico, disturbances are primarily due to cattle, horses, goat, and sheep grazing, particularly in communal grazing lands. The most evident disturbances are low tree recruitment, invasive shrubs establishment, species composition changes, and invasion of weeds dispersed mainly by livestock. The Sierra de Zapalinamé is a mountain range and natural protected area of northeast Mexico. We conducted the current study in this area in a forest stand of Pinus cembroides excluded from grazing in the last 25 years (1200 ha with pine forest vegetation and mountain chaparral) and another area nearby subjected to livestock grazing. Forest structure (basal area and density), tree species richness, total understory species richness, and understory species composition were analyzed at the control and grazed sites. Our results revealed that grazing has modified the understory species composition and reduced the evenness in the control plots. Therefore, to maintain species diversity and forest structure, we concluded that extensive grazing should be restricted for some areas or the number of animals reduced in zones of high ecological value.

Changes in the core species of the ant-plant network of oak forest converted to grassland: replacement of its ant functional groups.

Land-use change in terrestrial environments is one of the main threats to biodiversity. The study of ant-plant networks has increased our knowledge of the diversity of interactions and structure of these communities; however, little is known about how land-use change affects ant-plant networks. Here we determine whether the change in land use, from native oak forest to induced grassland, affected the network properties of ant-plant networks in a temperate forest in Mexico. We hypothesize that the disturbed vegetation will be more nested and generalized due to the addition of generalist species to the network. The oak forest network comprises 47 plant species and 11 ant species, while the induced grassland network has 35 and 13, respectively. Floral nectar was the resource used most intensely by the ants in both vegetation types. The ant-plant network of the induced grassland was significantly more nested and generalist than that of the oak forest; however, none of the networks were nested when considering the frequency of interaction. In both vegetation types, the ants were more specialized than the plants, and niche overlap was low. This could be related to the dominant species present in each type of vegetation: Prenolepis imparis in the oak forest and Camponotus rubrithorax in the grassland. The central core of cold climate ant species in the oak forest was replaced by a central core of subordinate Camponotini and tropical specialists in the induced grassland. These results suggest that the increase in nestedness and generalization in the grassland may be related to the loss of the cold climate specialists from the core of the oak forest network. Our findings provide evidence that land-use change increases the level of generalization in the ant-plant interaction networks of temperate forests.

Phylogenetic structure and diversity among herpetofaunal communities along a successional gradient of a tropical dry forest in Mexico

The tropical dry forest (TDF) is one of the most biodiverse ecosystems on earth, but also one of the most threatened. Therefore, it is critical to understand the processes that control community assembly and generate diversity during succession. We surveyed 15 herpetofaunal communities from a chronosequence of succession plots and tested whether phylogenetic structure (nonrandom distribution of species with respect to phylogeny) and phylogenetic diversity (incorporation of phylogenetic differences between species to measure biodiversity) differed among seasons and succession stages of the TDF in western Mexico. Phylogenetic structure and diversity of both groups showed temporal shifts. Our data suggest a role of environmental filtering in the first succession stages: during the rainy season in amphibians, allowing the coexistence of closely related species in water ponds, while for reptiles during the dry season, where higher exposure to solar radiation and humidity loss predominate in pastures. The more distantly related species in primary and secondary forests in later succession stages may predict ecosystem stability assuring the sufficient ecological strategies in a community to achieve the persistence of the ecosystem under changing conditions. Our results strengthen the arguments for promoting the conservation and managing of secondary forests under recovery to maintain phylogenetic diversity.

Effects of habitat disturbance and rainfall on a dominant medicinal dry forest tree

The interactive effects of anthropogenic disturbance and climatic variables can shape the demography of plant populations, but they remain poorly understood especially for long-lived species like tropical trees. Understanding these interactions is critical for designing forest management strategies in the face of both growing anthropogenic pressures and climate change. We explored the effects of habitat disturbance and interannual variation in rainfall on the population dynamics of Amphipterygium adstringens (Anacardiaceae), an ecologically dominant tree species endemic to the tropical deciduous forests of Mexico, that is heavily harvested for its medicinal bark. Specifically, we compared A. adstringens vital rates and long-term population growth rates of unharvested populations in a disturbed versus a protected tropical deciduous forest site; and explored the effects of inter-annual variation in annual rainfall on A. adstringens by comparing vital rates and population growth rates across three years with differing levels of rainfall. We established four plots in each of the two sites and monitored survival, growth and reproduction of 251 individuals over three years. We found that anthropogenic disturbance and rainfall differentially affected the vital rates of A. adstringens. Survival did not differ across sites or years. Growth tended to be lower and fecundity higher, in the protected site, but these effects varied across years and as a function of plant size. No seedlings were found in the disturbed site over the three years study period. Integral projection models showed that projected population growth rates (λ values) in the protected site were higher and much less variable over time than those of the disturbed site. Lambda values in the disturbed site were <1, indicating long-term population decline. In both sites, the rainiest year showed the highest population growth rate but the increase in λ was much higher in the disturbed site than in the protected site. These findings suggest that the population dynamics of A. adstringens are heavily affected by habitat disturbance forest management regime and that the impacts of interannual variability in rainfall or other environmental conditions may be exacerbated in disturbed conditions. The persistence of A. adstringens populations over time will require the exclusion of livestock as well as the implementation of silvicultural practices that will lead to seedling establishment and survival. This study provides key data for the management and conservation of A. adstringens, a highly valued medicinal species.

Color and morphological differentiation in the Sinaloa Wren (Thryophilus sinaloa) in the tropical dry forests of Mexico: The role of environment and geographic isolation.

The role and the degree to which environment and geographic isolation contribute to phenotypic diversity has been widely debated. Here, we studied phenotypic variation (morphology and plumage reflectance) in the Sinaloa Wren, an endemic bird distributed throughout the tropical dry forest (TDF) on the Mexican pacific slope where a pronounced variability in environmental conditions has been reported. In particular, we aimed: 1) to characterize phenotypic variation between subspecies; 2) to analyze the relationship between phenotypic and environmental variation in the context of classic ecogeographic rules, such as Bergmann’s, Allen’s, Gloger’s, and Bogert’s, and to quantify the relative roles of environment and geographic isolation and their interaction in shaping phenotypic variation; and 3) to test for niche conservatism between subspecies. Our data revealed significant differences among subspecies morphology and plumage reflectance. The environment explained a higher proportion of the morphological variation, while geography explained a smaller proportion. However, variation in plumage reflectance was mainly explained by the joint effect of geography and environment. Our data did not support for Bergmann´s and Allen´s rule. However, longer tails and wings were positively associated with higher elevations, larger tarsus and culmens were positively related to higher latitudes and to greater tree cover, respectively. Our data partially supported Gloger´s rule, where darker plumages were associated with more humid environments. The effects of temperature on plumage coloration were more consistent with Bogert´s rule. In addition, we found darker plumages related to higher levels of UV-B radiation. Finally, niche divergence was detected between T. s. cinereus and T. s. sinaloa vs. T. s. russeus. In a continuously distributed ecosystem such as the TDF on the pacific slope of Mexico, the environmental conditions and geographic isolation have played an important role in promoting phenotypic differentiation in the Sinaloa Wren.

Above- and below-ground trait coordination in tree seedlings depend on the most limiting resource: a test comparing a wet and a dry tropical forest in Mexico.

The study of above- and below-ground organ plant coordination is crucial for understanding the biophysical constraints and trade-offs involved in species’ performance under different environmental conditions. Environmental stress is expected to increase constraints on species trait combinations, resulting in stronger coordination among the organs involved in the acquisition and processing of the most limiting resource. To test this hypothesis, we compared the coordination of trait combinations in 94 tree seedling species from two tropical forest systems in Mexico: dry and moist. In general, we expected that the water limitation experienced by dry forest species would result in stronger leaf-stem-root coordination than light limitation experienced by moist forest species. Using multiple correlations analyses and tools derived from network theory, we found similar functional trait coordination between forests. However, the most important traits differed between the forest types. While in the dry forest the most central traits were all related to water storage (leaf and stem water content and root thickness), in the moist forest they were related to the capacity to store water in leaves (leaf water content), root efficiency to capture resources (specific root length), and stem toughness (wood density). Our findings indicate that there is a shift in the relative importance of mechanisms to face the most limiting resource in contrasting tropical forests.

Fog and coffee: a new species of Tridimeris (Annonaceae) endemic to the mountain cloud forest of Mexico

Tridimeris is the only genus of Annonaceae endemic to Mexico. Despite this, the genus has been largely ignored and very little is known about it; specifically its diversity and distribution in Mexico are not well studied. Here a new species of Tridimeris, T. huatuscoana, is described and illustrated. The most general characteristics of the new species confirm that dimerous flowers (two sepals and four petals) and the large, and fleshy fruits are the most obvious synapomorphies for the Mexican genus Tridimeris. With respect to the other two species described so far (Tridimeris hahniana and T. chiapensis), the new species can be easily distinguished by the unique combination of 2-flowered inflorescences, large petals pubescent outside, food bodies present at the base of its inner petals, setose leaf domatia, and fruits shortly pedunculate and stipitate. The new species expands the richness of the genus to three species, all endemic to Mexico and restricted to montane cloud forests.

Covariance structure assessment in multi‐level models for the analysis of forests rainfall interception data using repeated measures

Repeated measures refer to multiple observations obtained in the same sampling plot or experimental unit. Such observations can be taken in a particular period and the same local space in many cases. In either case, repeated measures lead to correlated data. Statistical analysis using correlated data without an appropriate covariance structure would lead to Type I or Type II errors. This study used rainfall interception data from a coniferous forest in Mexico, May to September 2010, to develop a multi-level linear model by assessing different covariance structures. Our main objectives were to evaluate the implications of these covariance structures in tests of fixed effects over categories of basal area and estimate differences between means and standard errors of each test. Based on the numerical inspection of the estimated correlations, their graphic representation, values of the statistics of fit (AICC and BIC) and considering that it is desirable to model a covariance structure in a parsimonious way, we concluded that the best selection for the structure of covariance was “heterogeneous Toeplitz.” Therefore, F $$ F $$ -values of fixed effects and the estimates of differences between means and standard errors of each test based on the “heterogeneous Toeplitz” covariance structure were considered the most appropriate among the analyzed covariance models.

Amphibian areas of endemism: A conservation priority in the threatened Mexican cloud forest

Amphibians of the Mexican Cloud Forest have a great diversity but are highly threatened. Forest endemisms are useful for recognizing biodiversity hotspots; furthermore, the interaction of historical and current events has generated areas of endemism that can be used for biological conservation in forest fragments; therefore, their identification is an essential part of the management and planning of biological conservation. Thus, our objective was to identify areas of endemism in the cloud forests of Mexico through the analysis of geographical distribution of 126 species of amphibians, as well as their conservation status to obtain information that supports the selection of priority areas for conservation. For this, the endemicity analysis method was used with three spatial scales, 1°×1°, 0.5°×0.5° and 0.25°×0.25° (lat/long), to achieve more complete results and avoid visual overrepresentation of areas of endemism. Seventeen consensus areas distributed in four of the five provinces of the Mexican Transition Zone were identified. The province of the Sierra Madre del Sur exhibited the highest amount of endemism areas, followed by the Sierra Madre Oriental, the East of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, and the Altos de Chiapas. Results indicate that the endemic areas of the Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre del Sur provinces are composed of amphibians included in the IUCN red list and the Official Mexican Standard NOM-059. Thus, the small areas of endemism in eastern and western Sierra Madre del Sur, nested within larger ones may be used to increase the protected areas of cloud forests in Mexico.

Taxonomic distinctiveness and phylogenetic variability of amphibians and reptiles in the cloud forest of Mexico

Taxonomic distinctiveness and phylogenetic variability of amphibians and reptiles in the cloud forest of Mexico

Soil Organic Carbon Changes in an Umbrisol under Different Silvicultural Treatments in a Temperate Forest in Northwestern Mexico

ABSTRACT Soil organic carbon (SOC) is of most importance for the development of all ecosystems, specifically carbon forest stock, as it is affected by climate, tree species and forest management. The aim of this study is to determine SOC changes in an Umbrisol under forest management in a temperate forest in Mexico. Three silvicultural forest stands were analyzed (Clear cutting, Seed-trees and Selection) and compared with a Post-fire area and a Reference stand. At each stand, 4 composite soil samples were collected at two depths (0–20 and 20–40 cm) to determine SOC; the values obtained from these samples were then used as inputs for the RothC 26 model. The ANOVA indicated differences in the SOC between stands and depths. Seed-trees showed highest content of SOC (0–20 cm), with an increase of 63% with respect to Reference. At depth 20–40 cm, Clear cutting presented the highest SOC, with increase rates above 100% with respect to Reference. Differences in the SOC can be attributed to litter deposition from forest harvesting and fires. Forest management contributes to improving and increasing the capacity of Umbrisols as carbon reservoirs. The modeled scenarios for both depths showed that SOC reservoirs reach an equilibrium after 50–60 years.

Restoration of tropical montane cloud forest in bracken dominated pastures: The role of nurse shrubs

Bracken (Pteridum arachnoideum) is an invasive fern species that slows or inhibits forest regeneration over vast areas worldwide, affecting biodiversity, ecosystem functions and productivity. To overcome arrested succession, effective restoration interventions are necessary. We examined the effects of planting pioneer shrubs on establishment success in mid- to late-successional tree species transplants, and their combined effects on bracken dominance in abandoned pastures of former cloud forest in Mexico. We hypothesised that the rapid development of nurse shrubs will reduce bracken growth and facilitate mid- to late-successional tree species establishment. We analysed the effects of planting cuttings of the shrubs Tithonia diversifolia and Sambucus nigra on bracken and on the seedling performance of Juglans pyriformis, Quercus insignis, Meliosma alba and Tapirira mexicana, in three sites under four treatments: (1) trees without shrubs, (2) trees with T. diversifolia, (3) trees with S. nigra, and (4) trees with both T. diversifolia and S. nigra. Increased transplant performance was expected under mixed shrub species, compared to single shrub species plantings, due to complementarity in the use of resources (niche separation). After two years, plantings with shrubs and trees reduced bracken cover by >60% and bracken live rhizome biomass by >50%. Shrubs effects were species-specific, reflecting a complex combination of facilitation and competition mechanisms. In comparison to the trees without shrubs, survival of M. alba and Q. insignis significantly increased with T. diversifolia, T. mexicana survival decreased with S. nigra and J. piriformis survival decreased with T. diversifolia and the mixture. The results support the use of cuttings of T. diversifolia or S. nigra separately, rather than in combination, and the inclusion of mid- to late-successional trees, to assist recovery of degraded cloud forest areas where succession has been stalled by bracken. An integrated management approach that considers synergistic factors causing plant mortality in bracken sites needs to be addressed.