Reforestation Research Articles

New Fuzzy-AHP Matlab based graphical user interface (GUI) for a broad range of users: Sample applications in the environmental field

Fuzzy-AHP (analytical hierarchy process) is a powerful method for dealing with subjective information. This popular hybrid approach is widely applied in medical and health science, and industrial management, mainly agriculture and environmental sciences. However, it is a complex, time-consuming method, which has induced us to try and optimize the decision-support system process. We create the Fuzzy-AHP algorithm and program in Matlab software, and convert it with the Matlab based graphical user interface (GUI) application. This is a new desktop tool with a wide selection of applications to help decision-makers prioritize choices and/or criteria goals based on expert judgments imported from Excel and a number of criteria. The new technique is designed to allow experts to fill the matrix judgment from both sides depending on the importance of criteria selection. Also, an optional alpha index to define stable or unstable conditions was requested for advanced users. The application was tested and applied in forest recreation and agroforestry case studies. The user-friendly Fuzzy-AHP Matlab GUI facilitates the process analysis speedily and offers an innovative way of enhancing the uncertainty to find the best compromise among experts. The tool is useful for optimizing the decision-support system process in many different fields.

Investigation of Geological Structures Using UAV Lidar and Its Effects on the Failure Mechanism of Deep-Seated Landslide in Lantai Area, Taiwan

The deep-seated landslide in the Lantai area, Taiwan, has a long history of landslide activity and often damages the sole access road to the Tai-Ping Mountain National Forest Recreation Area. This study adopted the high-resolution digital terrain model (DTMH) derived from UAV mounted LiDAR point cloud data for mapping geological structures and verified through field investigation. A slope model was proposed with mapped geological structures and shear zone, and numerical analysis was conducted using finite difference analysis. The failure mechanism was found to be significantly affected by the shear zone bounded by geological structures, which would not have been uncovered without the high-resolution DTM (DTMH). The resulting landslide behavior consisted well with mapped scarp, borehole data, and conformed with the event records. These results provided vital information supporting hazard mitigation strategy.

Estimating global land system impacts of timber plantations using MAgPIE 4.3.5

Abstract. Out of 1150 Mha (million hectares) of forest designated primarily for production purposes in 2020, plantations accounted for 11 % (131 Mha) of this area and fulfilled more than 33 % of the global industrial roundwood demand. However, adding additional timber plantations to meet increasing timber demand intensifies competition for scarce land resources between different land uses such as food, feed, livestock and timber production. Despite the significance of plantations with respect to roundwood production, their importance in meeting the long-term timber demand and the implications of plantation expansion for overall land-use dynamics have not been studied in detail, in particular regarding the competition for land between agriculture and forestry in existing land-use models. This paper describes the extension of the modular, open-source land system Model of Agricultural Production and its Impact on the Environment (MAgPIE) using a detailed representation of forest land, timber production and timber demand dynamics. These extensions allow for a better understanding of the land-use dynamics (including competition for land) and the associated land-use change emissions of timber production. We show that the spatial cropland patterns differ when timber production is accounted for, indicating that timber plantations compete with cropland for the same scarce land resources. When plantations are established on cropland, it causes cropland expansion and deforestation elsewhere. Using the exogenous extrapolation of historical roundwood production from plantations, future timber demand and plantation rotation lengths, we model the future spatial expansion of forest plantations. As a result of increasing timber demand, we show a 177 % increase in plantation area by the end of the century (+171 Mha in 1995–2100). We also observe (in our model results) that the increasing demand for timber amplifies the scarcity of land, which is indicated by shifting agricultural land-use patterns and increasing yields from cropland compared with a case without forestry. Through the inclusion of new forest plantation and natural forest dynamics, our estimates of land-related CO2 emissions better match with observed data, in particular the gross land-use change emissions and carbon uptake (via regrowth), reflecting higher deforestation with the expansion of managed land and timber production as well as higher regrowth in natural forests and plantations.

Calcium and Magnesium Dynamics in Litter in a Successional Forest Ecosystem, Under Hydroperiod

This study was part of the Manipulation of Moisture and Nutrient Availability in Young Regrowth Forests in Eastern Amazonia Project (MANFLORA). The experiment was designed in completely randomized blocks containing control and irrigated treatments during the dry period (5 mm of water/day), with four repetitions each. The monthly mean litter values ranged from 316.10 to 997.90 kg ha-1 month-1. The magnitude of this phenomenon can be explained by the functional role of the floristic structure, represented by the species Myrcia sylvatica (G. mey) DC., Myrcia bracteata (Rich) DC., Miconia ciliata (Rich) DC., Lacistema pubescens Mart., Lacistema aggregatum (Berg.) Rusby, Vismia guianensis (Aubl.) Choisy, Cupania scrobiculata Rich. and Ocotea guianensis Aubl., which constituted the determinant factors, associated with the hydroperiodic effect and ecosystem manipulation. The monthly mean of the analytical results of mass treatments were significant (P < 0.05), however, when compared annually there was no significance, which indicates seasonal influence, since the period of greatest deposition is the dry one, regardless of the water manipulation along the period studied. Only in time the mass values of Ca and Mg were not significant for treatment (P < 0.05). The amount of Ca was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that of Mg.

Efficiency and feasibility of Best Management Practices to reduce nutrient loads in an agricultural river basin

Excessive use of mineral fertilizers and inappropriate tillage operations are two main drivers of land degradation. The European Green Deal (EUGD) aims to restore the natural functions of ground and surface soil by 2030. EU Member States will be called upon to include mitigation measures in their own management programs. In this context, the current work aimed to evaluate the feasibility of Best Management Practices (BMPs), generally used to counteract soil erosion, in achieving nutrient load reduction, and evaluate their economic convenience in the private and public sector. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to model point and diffuse nutrient sources in the Carapelle basin (Apulia, Italy) and to simulate BMP scenarios. Contour farming (CF), no tillage (NT), reforestation (RF), and two additional scenarios, including the 20% reduction of fertilizers in CF and NT, (CFR) and (NTR), were simulated following the EUGD strategy. For the current land uses, the riverine export of nitrogen (TN) and phosphorous (TP) were ∼49 kg ha-1y-1 and ∼0.044 kg ha-1y-1, respectively. CF and NT increased N-NO3 load both into surface runoff and in terms of leaching. Conversely, RF showed a reduction of N-NO3 losses. CFR and NTR scenarios decreased N-NO3 load both in surface runoff and leached of ∼20%. CFR and NTR represented the best alternative among the analyzed scenarios both for their lower production costs at the farm level and for their savings in terms of nutrient and soil losses. RF was economically profitable in sloped areas, thus representing BMPs that may be implemented in combination with other practices to have a greater impact at the basin scale. BMP implementation requires significant investments (public and private). The results of this study provide the scientific basis for decision-making for agriculture and watershed management.

Recreation and Therapy in Urban Forests—The Potential Use of Sensory Garden Solutions

Urban forests are not only woodlands or groups of trees, but also individual trees, street trees, trees in parks, trees in derelict corners, and gardens. All of which are located in urban and peri-urban areas and diversify the landscape and provide a wide range of social benefits. Sensory gardens play a specific therapeutic and preventive role. Designing such gardens as a recreational infrastructure element can successfully enrich urban forests. Following the principles of universal design may provide enjoyment for all city-dwellers, with special attention given to the needs of individuals with disabilities. We studied 15 gardens and one sensory path located in various regions in Poland. The inventory was carried out on the basis of the features considered important in spatial orientation by blind and partially sighted people. The results showed that the solutions used were only partly adequate for the needs of selected users. We found neither tactile walking surface indicators (e.g., communication lines and terrain), spatial models, nor applications in mobile devices. However, these could be useful for all visitors. We confirmed that although problems with the use of forest tourist space are dependent on the type of disability, by implementing the idea of universal design for all elements of recreational infrastructure, forests may be accessible for all users.

Mapping spatio-temporal patterns in global tree cover heterogeneity: Links with forest degradation and recovery

Tree cover, which has been widely studied using various remote sensing techniques, serves an essential indicator of forest productivity and habitat quality. Spatial heterogeneity in tree cover has received less attention despite links with critical phenomena such as biodiversity, tree re-expansion into formerly deforested areas, and degradation of existing forest landscapes. Few remote sensing studies have explored how tree cover heterogeneity varies across space and time, or how it may determine local or large-scale forest dynamics. This study used a global vegetation time-series product to map spatio-temporal dynamics in global tree cover heterogeneity over a 35-year period from 1982 to 2016, with heterogeneity quantified using the diversity metric Rao’s Q. We first explored the underlying relationship between tree cover and its heterogeneity at landscape scale across the globe. We then investigated how tree cover heterogeneity varied across tree cover gradients, biogeographic biomes, stand history, land protection status, and forest landscape intact status. Finally, nine possible combinations of variation trends in tree cover and its heterogeneity were used to generate a new map of forest dynamics categories. Our results show that monotonic spatio-temporal changes in tree cover are not necessarily associated with changes in tree cover heterogeneity. This suggests that simply using variation trends of tree cover without considering the context of local spatial heterogeneity does not fully capture forest dynamics. We show that remotely sensed tree cover heterogeneity can easily distinguish tree plantations from primary and secondary forests and that temporal change in tree cover heterogeneity is sensitive to spatial heterogeneity of open forest landscapes. The new forest dynamics categories map captures ongoing woody expansion in the Sahel region, forest degradation in the Amazon and central Africa, and widespread forest regrowth in Europe and Asia. Thereby, it is clear that spatio-temporal variation in tree cover heterogeneity supplements existing remote sensing studies in depicting global forest degradation, succession, and recovery.

Accounting for forest management in the estimation of forest carbon balance using the dynamic vegetation model LPJ-GUESS (v4.0, r9710): implementation and evaluation of simulations for Europe

Abstract. Global forests are the main component of the land carbon sink, which acts as a partial buffer to CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. Dynamic vegetation models offer an approach to projecting the development of forest carbon sink capacity in a future climate. Forest management capabilities are important to include in dynamic vegetation models to account for the effects of age and species structure and wood harvest on carbon stocks and carbon storage potential. This article describes the implementation of a forest management module containing even-age and clear-cut and uneven-age and continuous-cover management alternatives in the dynamic vegetation model LPJ-GUESS. Different age and species structure initialisation strategies and harvest alternatives are introduced. The model is applied at stand and European scales. Different management alternatives are applied in simulations of European beech (Fagus sylvaticus) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) even-aged monoculture stands in central Europe and evaluated against above-ground standing stem volume and harvested volume data from long-term experimental plots. At the European scale, an automated thinning and clear-cut strategy is applied. Modelled carbon stocks and fluxes are evaluated against reported data at the continent and country levels. Including wood harvest in regrowth forests increases the simulated total European carbon sink by 32 % in 1991–2015 and improves the fit to the reported European carbon sink, growing stock, and net annual increment (NAI). Growing stock (156 m3 ha−1) and NAI (5.4 m3 ha1 yr1) densities in 2010 are close to reported values, while the carbon sink density in 2000–2007 (0.085 kg C m−2 yr1) equates to 63 % of reported values, most likely reflecting uncertainties in carbon fluxes from soil given the unaccounted for forest land-use history in the simulations. The fit of modelled and reported values for individual European countries varies, but NAI is generally closer to reported values when including wood harvest in simulations.

Effects of site productive capacity and stand density management on the maximum density line for Eucalyptus pilularis (blackbutt)

ABSTRACT Data were available from two measurements of each stand of a set of stands in native regrowth and plantation forests of Eucalyptus pilularis (blackbutt) in subtropical New South Wales and Queensland. Measurements were made after competition-induced mortality had started in each stand. Most of the regrowth forest had been thinned some time before the measurements. Based on the Reineke model that relates stand stocking density to quadratic mean diameter, a maximum density line was determined for each stand based on methods developed by Vanclay and Sands. It was found that the intercept of the maximum density line increased both with increasing stand site productive capacity and in the thinned regrowth stands. The latter finding does not seem to have been reported for forests before; it is hypothesised to be a result of the delayed redevelopment of inter-tree competitive processes following the major reduction in stand density resulting from thinning. Both effects will have consequences for the structure of density management diagrams commonly used to assist in forest management practice.

Soil factors affecting the growth and sustainability of spruce stands in the north-eastern Moscow region

Forests located around large urban areas belong to the protective category of the system of Russian forestry. On the one hand, this status defines limitations in the forest management and use; on the other hand, it does not require specific treatments related to the restoration of forests considering their recreational potential, and encouraging the creation of stands sustainable to natural and anthropogenic factors’ influence. This research was conducted in the north-east of Moscow region on the territories where spruce stands were seriously affected by the 2010-year drought. Using distance methods, forest areas with spruce stands of different productivity and level of damage were identified. In these areas, a soil survey was conducted and soil series forming various growth and development conditions for spruce stands were obtained. Quantitative constraint equations for soil factors closely related to the spruce stands productivity were gained. It is shown that the sustainability of averagely-productive stands to unfavorable factors (drought) turned to be higher than that of highly-productive ones. That is why the increase of stand productivity class in recreation forests should not be of primary importance for forestry.

The recreational and economic role of the suburban landscaped territories in Voronezh

The applicability of the topic is conditioned by the increase the share of the recreational forests and the development of the urban agglomeration. The purpose of the study was to determine the recreational capacity of natural green areas, followed by an ecological and economic assessment. In the work, recreational and sanitary-hygienic assessments were carried out, the stages of digression, the classes of stability of plantings were determined, followed by an ecological and economic assessment of suburban green areas. The weighted average value of the ecological recreational capacity is determined. In plantations with a predominance of oak or pine in the existing types of forest growing conditions, the specific value of the ecological recreational capacity is the same, therefore, approaches to the development of these forests may be the same. To assess the ecological potential of plantings, the content of carbon, absorbed carbon dioxide, and oxygen released by them were calculated. The results of the calculations show that the maximum amount of C2 is observed in mixed stands with a predominance of oak, the minimum-in pure pine stands. Obtained results of the investigation let to realize the forest planning, taking into consideration the results of the eco-economic estimate.

함지산 치유숲길 조성계획

Forest roads are an important part of forest recreation services, and the demand of users for various activities using the natural environment and surrounding topographical resources of forest roads is increasing. This study utilizes various resources and location characteristics of Hamjisan Mountain located in Buk-gu, Daegu to create forest paths suitable for forest recreation and the needs of residents. The target site is a member of Hamjisan Mountain in Buk-gu, Daegu, and the natural environment, land use, humanities, landscape, etc. of the target site were analyzed, and the target site survey was conducted by analyzing related policies and similar policies and similar cases were analyzed and reflected in the plan. The plan focused on creating forest paths that can be easily accessed by various classes by utilizing the location potential of forests connected to the city center. In particular, Palgeosanseong-gil was planned to reflect cultural characteristics such as topography, vegetation, and cultural resources within the target area. The Happy Eoul Forest Road is planned to be easily used by various classes with facilities that take into account changes in terrain and slope. Through this plan, it is expected to contribute to the revitalization of forest roads by linking the ancient tombs in Guam-dong and Palgeosanseong Fortress, which are designated as national cultural assets in Hamjisan Mountain.

Perceptions of tourists of the resources, ecological service functions and recreation value of the Guanwu National Forest Recreation Area.

This study surveyed visitor perceptions of the resources of the Guanwu National Forest Recreation Area (GNFRA) in Taiwan', their perceptions toward the ecosystem service functions of the GNFRA, their expectations and opinions on its management, and their recreational activities. Independent sample t-tests and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to examine the influences of the backgrounds of respondents on their perceptions toward the ecosystem service functions of the GNFRA. The importance-performance analysis (IPA) method was used to explore evaluations by tourists on the management of the GNRFA. Finally, a global positioning system (GPS) was used to process records of recreational activities by tourists within the GNFRA to understand the movement of tourists during their recreational activities within the GNRFA. The results showed that visitors to the GNRFA regarded its recreational resources to be valuable and that they had a high willingness to revisit. The visitors also showed a certain understanding of the ecosystem services provided by the forest ecosystem. There were significant differences in perceptions of ecosystem services among visitors of different backgrounds. In addition, the results of IPA showed the "importance" of perceptions and "performance" within the opinions of tourists on the management of the forest recreation area. The records of recreational activities by tourists showed that they experienced the most benefits when experiencing picturesque scenery along walking trails. The results of this study can contribute to future management of the GNRFA.

Merging Architectural Structures with Forest Walkways: A Comprehensive Review of Treetop Walkways and the Fu Forest Trail of China

Treetop walkways are unique trail constructions. Their support structure suspends a walkway platform several meters from the ground, shuttling among the canopies of trees in the forest. Many countries have built canopy trails for forest recreation, tourism, and other uses. In certain cities, the treetop walkway is no longer a single building unit or forest trail in the narrow sense, and is planned as a multi-functional urban public landscape. This study reviews the development of treetop and elevated forest trails, introduces several representative cases, and provides a comprehensive reference point that fills previous research gaps. We also analyze the Fu Forest Trail, the most representative treetop walkway in China through, inter alia, its modular system, elevated structural, and design appearance. We explore the background and application of treetop trails that connect residents and the environment as a multifunctional urban public landscape in China, and related future research directions. We conclude that treetop walkways have many distinct advantages, and are becoming trendy in forest trail development; there is excellent potential to transform them creatively and innovatively into high-quality forest infrastructure or urban public landscape for public benefit.

Satellite monitoring of forest fire impact and regeneration using NDVI and LST

Forest fire is a major hazard around the world that seriously affects the terrestrial, aquatic, and atmospheric systems. Remote sensing methods are found to be efficient in mapping forest fires and analyzing the postfire effects through change detection. The land surface temperature (LST) also gets affected with the change of vegetation cover over the region due to the forest fires. This work pertains to analysis of postevent effects of forest fires and regrowth of vegetation using LST and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) of 2014, in which many forest fires occurred, and of 2018, to assess the vegetation regrowth in the forest range in and around Tirupati region (Andhra Pradesh, India). The LST was estimated using monowindow algorithm and NDVI by band ratioing method for the Landsat 8 imagery. The Landsat 8 datasets for February and March of 2014 and March of 2018 were used in the study. Analysis using LST and NDVI showed that 112-sq km area was affected by forest fires and detected forest regrowth. A change of 35.8% and 14.69% in mean NDVI and mean temperatures, respectively, was observed for the study area.

Evaluating the Recreation Value of Alishan National Forest Recreation Area in Taiwan

This study aimed to construct an effective model to estimate the recreation value and total annual recreation benefits of the Alishan National Forest Recreation Area (ANFR) through the travel cost method. Negative binomial regression was also employed to estimate the demand function. This study sorted participants based on gender, age, level of education, personal monthly income, occupation, and place of residence to examine their differences in perceived recreation value and recreation demand. The survey responses revealed that most tourists were mainly middle aged, and took family vacations. The findings indicate that the recreation benefits of traveling to Alishan per person each year equaled NTD 1703. Furthermore, the annual recreation benefits of Alishan were approximately between NTD 2,157,121,944 and NTD 2,452,136,112 based on a total of 1,353,276 visits traveling to Alishan in 2019. Recommendations and suggestions are drawn for ANFR based the results.

Tracking the Rates and Mechanisms of Canopy Damage and Recovery Following Hurricane Maria Using Multitemporal Lidar Data

Hurricane Maria, a Category 4 storm, snapped and uprooted canopy trees, removed large branches, and defoliated vegetation across Puerto Rico. The magnitude of forest damages and the rates and mechanisms of forest recovery following Maria provide important benchmarks for understanding the ecology of extreme events. We used airborne Lidar data acquired before (2017) and after Maria (2018, 2020) to quantify landscape-scale changes in forest structure along a 439-ha elevational gradient (100–800 m) in the Luquillo Experimental Forest. Damages from Maria were widespread, with 73% of the study area losing ≥ 1 m in canopy height (mean = −7.1 m). Taller forests at lower elevations suffered more damage than shorter forests above 600 m. Yet only 13.5% of the study area had canopy heights ≤ 2 m in 2018, a typical threshold for forest gaps, highlighting the importance of damaged trees and advanced regeneration on post-storm forest structure. Heterogeneous patterns of regrowth and recruitment yielded shorter and more open forests by 2020. Nearly 45% of forests experienced initial height loss > 1 m (2017–2018) followed by rapid height gain > 1 m (2018–2020), whereas 21.6% of forests with initial height losses showed little or no height gain, and 17.8% of forests exhibited no height changes larger than ± 1 m in either period. Canopy layers < 10 m tall accounted for most increases in canopy height and fractional cover between 2018 and 2020, with gains split evenly between height growth and lateral crown expansion by surviving individuals. These findings benchmark rates of gap formation, crown expansion, and canopy closure following hurricane damage and highlight the diversity of ecosystem impacts from heterogeneous spatial patterns and vertical stratification of forest regrowth following a major disturbance event.

The recreational value of a peri-urban forest in Morocco

Peri-urban forests provide a range of important benefits to urban dwellers, such as, for example, nature-based recreation. This cultural ecosystem service is of significant importance in the developing world: It helps to increase urban resilience and stress recovery, which, in turn, can help mitigate many urban-life-related psychological and physical health issues, and socio-cultural problems caused by rapid urbanization and population growth. However, in developing countries such as, for example, Morocco, the heavy use of peri-urban forests for recreation and the limited management funds that do not keep up with the growing need for development and conservation result in anthropogenic pressures that lead to the degradation of these valuable natural sites. Non-market valuation of peri-urban forest recreation can help inform decision-making, conceive more effective management of these natural areas and increase funding for their conservation. This study estimates the recreational benefits of Val d’Ifrane, a broad peri-urban forest within Ifrane National Park in Morocco, to its domestic visitors, thereby filling a research gap in the non-market valuation of nature-based recreation in developing countries in general, and the geographic region of Morocco specifically. The study uses the individual single site Travel Cost Method with a correction for zero-truncation and endogenous stratification to estimate the recreational use-value of Val d’Ifrane. Results suggest an annual recreational value of 159.59 million DH (€ 14.71 million) or an average of 1,063.94 DH (€ 98.08) per visit per year (confidence intervals of 12.78 million DH (€ 1.17 million) to 306.40 million DH (€ 28.24 million) per annum, or 85.21 DH (€ 7.86) to 2,042.68 DH (€ 188.30) per visit per year). Robustness of the results is tested with regard to the operationalization of the travel cost and the opportunity cost of time, as well as the consideration of multi-site and multi-destination trips. The total annual recreational value is found to be 35 times higher than the cost for the last management and investment carried out by local environmental authorities in more than ten years. This information can assist decision-makers in their deliberations on funding for Val d’Ifrane restoration and development to maintain its recreational value while minimizing the negative impacts on natural capital and preserving the site for future generations.

How to fight climate change? Let forests grow

While enthusiasm grows for reforestation as a tool for combatting climate change, we lacked information about how fast or slow new forests across the globe could capture carbon dioxide. So we created a first-of-its-kind map of potential carbon capture from natural forest regrowth for every square kilometer of the planet. - submission by Susan C. Cook-Patton, Sara M. Leavitt, Peter W. Ellis

Comments: How Real Are Carbon Offsets?

Purchasing carbon offsets is a widespread means of attempting to meet carbon-reduction and net-zero emissions goals across many industries. Also widespread is the increasing scrutiny of the practice. How “real” are the offsets? How are they quantified and verified, and by whom? Purchasing carbon offsets, or carbon credits, is an option when a company’s efforts to eliminate its carbon emissions through mitigation methods fall short. The offsets are purchased through investments in projects that remove carbon from the atmosphere such as nature-based solutions (e.g., REDD, or reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation), negative-emission technologies (including carbon capture and storage [CCS] and bioenergy with CCS), and renewable energy. Here’s where the criticism arises: How is the amount of carbon captured by these projects measured? For example, how much carbon can a tree or forest handle? Are all trees equal in their carbon intake? The uncertainty and variability in carbon-accumulation rates is acknowledged in research studies that are attempting to provide quantification. A study published in Nature compiled more than 13,000 georeferenced measurements to determine the rates for the first 30 years of natural forest regrowth. A map showed more than 100-fold variation in rates across the globe and indicated that default rates from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change may underestimate the rates by 32% on average and do not capture eightfold variation within ecozones. On the other hand, the study concluded that the maximum mitigation potential from natural forest regrowth is 11% lower than previously reported because of the use of overly high rates for locations of potential new forest. While the study was not intended to provide verification to be used in the carbon-offset market, it points to the difficulty in getting the numbers right. Third-party verifiers are casting light on the validity of offsets. Various organizations such as the Climate Registry and the American Carbon Registry (ACR) aim to set standards and best practices. In both the regulated and voluntary carbon markets, ACR says it “oversees the registration and verification of carbon-offset projects following approved carbon accounting methodologies or protocols and issues offsets on a transparent registry system.” In July, CarbonPlan, a nonprofit that analyzes climate solutions based on the best available science and data, rated BCarbon, a standard created by Rice University’s Baker Institute for Public Policy, as one of the best publicly available protocols for soil carbon offsets in the US. BCarbon, a nature-based mitigation system, aims to remove CO2 from the atmosphere and store it in soil as organic carbon. Based on independent verification and certification requirements, the credits under the system are issued for the removal of CO2 by photosynthesis and storage as carbon in soil. Landowners are eligible for storage payments. The Baker Institute said the approach could unlock the potential for removal, storage, and certification of upwards of 1 billion tons of CO2 and lead to the protection and restoration of hundreds of millions of acres of grassland. Scrutiny of carbon offsets is beneficial in this expanding carbon market. Verification and certification will serve to increase the trust of both buyers and sellers—and the public—in what will likely be a bridge toward longer-term solutions to reduce global carbon emissions. And getting the numbers right is essential.