Forest-dwelling Communities Research Articles

Deciphering forest change: Linking satellite-based forest cover change and community perceptions in a threatened landscape in India.

Global conservation efforts have traditionally focused on biodiversity hotspots and other priority landscapes. However, large areas outside priority sites have high conservation value and are referred to as neglected landscapes. The Eastern Ghats of India is an unexplored forest landscape of high conservation value with several endemic and threatened species reported, and is also home to many indigenous forest-dwelling communities. However, it remains a neglected area for conservation and only 3.53% of this landscape is protected. Here, we examine the effectiveness of protected areas in neglected landscapes in preventing forest degradation, and how community perceptions can be used to understand satellite-based landscape change analyses at village level. This study was conducted in Papikonda National park (PNP) and its unprotected buffers in India's Eastern Ghats. Forest degradation was higher in the buffer (32%) than inside PNP (12%) between 1991 and 2014. Communities attributed shifting cultivation, plantations and over-extraction of forest resources as being the major drivers of forest degradation. Community observations of change were not significantly correlated with spatial measures of change. Forest degradation was higher outside the PA at a landscape level and inside the PA at the village level, therefore the PA was effective in reducing degradation at the landscape level but not at the village level inside the PA. We further discuss the role of community observations in interpreting forest degradation in neglected forest landscapes.

Critical assessment of implementation of the Forest Rights Act of India

Under a centralized forest management system dating back to the start of the British colonial regime, forest-dwelling communities across India were denied formal rights to access forest resources, while large tracts of forest land were degraded or deforested. Enacted in 2006, The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, better known as the Forest Rights Act, was a landmark piece of legislation in India. Its attempt at righting a “historic injustice” and “strengthening the conservation regime” through recognition of forest dwellers’ right to sustainably use and manage forests is significant for socioeconomic, political and ecological reasons. Beyond implications for people and forests of India, the Forest Rights Act represents an important case study that informs analysis of a global trend toward decentralization of governance of forests as well as rights-based approaches to development. This study analyses implementation of the Forest Rights Act across India for the period 2008-2017. We examine rates of formal distribution of rights claims at the level of individual states, and we try to explain variance across states through reliance on political, economic and ecological considerations. In trying to make sense of the large variation in the outcomes of claims made under the Forest Rights Act across states, we find that extent of forest cover is positively associated with rate of distribution of claims, and presence of left-wing extremism is positively associated with claim rejection rates. These findings indicate constraints to wider and more even formal implementation of this legal foundation for development, and they highlight important governance tensions underlying prospects for environmental conservation through decentralization of forest management authority.

Impacts of Tropical Deforestation and Increased Heat Exposure on Health and Productivity in Rural Areas: The Case of Forest Dwelling Communities in East Kalimantan, Indonesia

There is growing evidence that temperature increases associated with tropical deforestation are having negative impacts on human health and productivity. These changes are projected to disproportionately affect poor, rural populations. We report selected findings from a larger study that aims to characterize heat exposure in primary forest and cleared areas, describe how rural communities are adapting to deforestation, and investigate the impacts of increased heat exposure on human health and productivity. A total of 361 participants from ten villages in East Kalimantan, Indonesia were in the study. Continuous measurements in forested and cleared areas were collected in each village using 3M™ heat stress monitors. Households completed surveys that included demographics, health status and medical conditions, and time-use modules. Mean maximum temperatures were 33°C and 37°C in forest and open areas, respectively, and mean forest temperatures were 2.6°C cooler than open areas. We find 74% of participants work only in open areas, while 26% work in forests and open areas. Self-reported heat-related illness symptoms in the past week were 4.1% higher among those working only in open areas. Participants reported modifying work schedules to adapt to heat, with nearly 75% of participants working less than in previous years and 37% unable to work the hours they would like in a day. Participants working only in open areas took longer midday breaks and worked longer afternoon shifts. Questions on future adaptation to hotter temperatures indicate more than a third of participants will work less or shift work schedules to avoid the hottest periods of the day. Our findings indicate that heat exposure is higher in deforested areas and adaptation strategies to avoid heat will impact work and productivity in this population.

Development and characterization of microsatellite markers for Phyllanthus emblica Linn., important nontimber forest product species

Phyllanthus emblica and P. indofischeri, commonly known as the Indian gooseberry, are important nontimber forest product (NTFP) species widely distributed across the Indian subcontinent. The fruits of these species are rich in vitamin C and are used in the preparation of a number of herbal medicines for treating a wide range of disorders. Due to the increased demand, they have been harvested extensively and form a major source of income for the forest-dwelling communities living in southern India. There are limited studies to understand the impact of harvesting on the genetic structure of these species. In this study, 15 polymorphic microsatellite markers have been developed for P. emblica and were characterized by screening 20 individuals each of P. emblica and P. indofischeri. The number of alleles per locus ranged 2-9 for P. emblica and 2-11 for P. indofischeri. The observed and expected heterozygosity of P. emblica ranged 0-1 and 0.401-0.825, respectively. Similarly, the observed and expected heterozygosity of P. indofischeri ranged 0.5-1 and 0.366-0.842, respectively. Cross-amplification of the designed primers was assessed with seven related Phyllanthus species. The microsatellite markers developed can be used for studying the population genetic structure, gene flow and genetic diversity of P. emblica and P. indofischeri.

Issues Related to Implementation of Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest-dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 2006, in Bihar: Fieldwork from Gaya District, Bihar

Forest Rights Act was passed by the Indian Parliament in 2006, and the states have implemented it since 2008. The Act recognises rights of the forest-dwelling communities on forest lands. This article tries to analyse the issues related to its implementation in Bihar through the fieldwork done in the villages of Gaya district. In case of Bihar, apart from tribals, the largest beneficiaries of this Act are the Mahadalits who qualify as Other Traditional Forest-Dwellers in this law. Bhyuians, a scheduled caste, have managed to acquire (by Kabza, possession) forest land despite the non-recognition of their entitlement rights by the state. They have been in a constant interaction with the administrative apparatus of state in holding on to their Kabza over forest land without resorting to any act of physical violence. Their basic demand is that the state government should recognise the legality of their Kabza on the land.

Assessing Human–Wildlife Interactions in a Forest Settlement in Sathyamangalam and Mudumalai Tiger Reserves

India, a megabiodiversity nation, is home to 4,800 species and 1.3 billion people. The proximity of people and wildlife produces a wide variety of human–wildlife interactions particularly with forest-dwelling communities embedded deep within protected areas (PAs). We evaluated people–park relationships through the 421 families in Thengumarahada located between Sathyamangalam and Mudumalai Tiger Reserves in India. This settlement was originally granted land rights in 1948 but has been subleased many times over. We examined attitudes toward wildlife, PA, experiences of conflict, and challenges faced by people. Logistic regression models evaluated the factors associated with household losses and their attitudes. Thirty-four percent of households reported crop loss and 10% reported livestock predation. Crop loss was associated with growing rice and bananas and negatively with forest cover. Depredation was primarily associated with 87% of households grazing livestock in the forest. Usage of mitigation measures was not significantly associated with reducing conflict. Despite conflict losses and government pressure, only 34% of families expressed an interest in settling outside the reserved forest. People’s motivations to remain in the forest hamlets included free resource availability (28%) and tradition-familiar livelihoods (29%). People’s mistrust of the forest department was heightened by the lack of awareness about (29%) and payment of compensation (3%). Given the frequency of conflict, the lack of infrastructure, inadequate compensation payments, and limited interest in relocation, balancing people–wildlife relationships in the forests of Sathyamangalam and Mudumalai Tiger Reserves remains a formidable task.

The diet of open-habitat chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the Issa valley, western Tanzania

Comparative data on the diets of extant primates inform hypotheses about hominin resource use. Historically, data describing chimpanzee diets stem primarily from forest-dwelling communities, and we lack comparative data from chimpanzees that live in mosaic habitats that more closely resemble those reconstructed for Plio-Pleistocene hominins. We present data on the diet of a partially-habituated community of open habitat chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) from the Issa valley, western Tanzania, collected over a four-year period. Based mostly on macroscopic faecal analysis, Issa chimpanzees consumed a minimum of 69 plant species. There was no relationship between plant consumption and either fruit availability or feeding tree density; the most frequently consumed plant species were found in riverine forests, with woodland species consumed more frequently during the late dry season. We conclude by contextualising these findings with those of other open-habitat chimpanzee sites, and also by discussing how our results contribute towards reconstructions of early hominin exploitation of mosaic landscapes.

Assigning conservation value and identifying hotspots of endemic rattan diversity in the Western Ghats, India

Rattans, or canes, are one of the most important non-timber forest products supporting the livelihood of many forest-dwelling communities in South and North-eastern India. Due to increased demand for rattan products, rattans have been extracted indiscriminately from the Western Ghats, a 1600-km mountain chain running parallel to the west coast of India. Extensive harvesting, loss of habitat and poor regeneration has resulted in dwindling rattan populations, necessitating an urgent attempt to conserve existing rattan resources. In this study, using niche-modelling tools, an attempt has been made to identify areas of high species richness of rattans in the Western Ghats, one of the mega-diversity regions of the world. We have also developed conservation values for 21 economically important and endemic rattans of the Western Ghats. We identified at least two to three sites of extremely high species richness outside the existing protected area network that should be prioritized for in situ conservation. This study emphasizes the need to develop strategies for the long-term conservation of rattans in the Western Ghats, India.

Anthropos into humanitas: Civilizing violence, scientific forestry, and the ‘Dorobo question’ in eastern Africa

Early interactions between state administrators and forest-dwelling communities in eastern Africa yield significant insight into colonial attempts to grapple with difference across hierarchically conceptualized ‘races’, classes, tribes, and radically alternative livelihoods. In particular, uncertainties related to the governance of forest-dwellers resulted in a problematic known as the ‘Dorobo question’ in Kenya Colony, the former word being a corruption of the Maasai term for the poor, the sinful – and hence – the cattle-less. Drawing upon archival research in Kenya and the United Kingdom, I argue that halting attempts to govern such communities illuminate an historically and geographically specific dimension of late imperial Britain’s apparently ‘liberal’ biopolitics, which entailed not the ‘abandonment’ of populations, per se, but rather the elimination and subsequent transformation of livelihoods, ontologies, and sustainablities perceived as fiscally barren or otherwise of little use to the colonial state. Far from being resolved, however, the afterlives of these logics of elimination highlight the stakes of contemporary struggles over eastern African forests, and particularly so in the context of an emergent transition to ostensibly ‘green’ forms of capitalism in the region.

The Effect of Fallow Period Length on the Abundance and Diversity of Usable Plant Assemblages in Shifting Cultivation System (Swidden Agriculture) in Northern Laos

ABSTRACT Shifting cultivation, or swiddening, involves alternating cycles of cropping and fallow periods. Rather than being abandoned, the fallow swidden fields provide a source of important plant products for remote, forest-dwelling human communities. In northern Laos, the traditional length of fallow periods used to range between five and 11 years, depending on the availability of land and quality of the soil. Fallow periods are currently being shortened because of population pressures and government policies. To determine the potential impacts of shorter fallow periods, 128 swidden fallows of various ages (up to 20 years), located at altitudes between 400 and 800 m a.s.l. in northern Laos were sampled for usable plants. The impact of fallow length on plant abundance and species diversity was analysed. The number of usable plant species was found to increase with the fallow age until it was 11–12 years old, and then decline, while the abundance of usable plants increased beyond that period. We conclude ...

It Takes a Rooted Village: Networked Resistance, Connected Communities, and Adaptive Responses to Forest Tenure Reform in Northern Thailand

Conflicts persist between forest dwelling communities and advocates of forest conservation. In Thailand, a community forestry bill and national park expansion initiatives leave little space for communities. The article analyzes the case of the predominantly ethnic Black Lahu village of Huai Lu Luang in Chiang Rai province that has resisted the threats posed by a community forestry bill and a proposed national park. The villagers reside on a national forest reserve and have no de jure rights to the land. This article argues, however, that through its network rooted in place and connected to an assemblage of civil society, local government, and NGOs, Huai Lu Luang has been able to stall efforts by the Thai government that would detrimentally impact their use of and access to forest resources. Their resistance is best understood not in isolation – as one victimized community resisting threats to their livelihoods – but in connection to place, through dynamic assemblages. A ‘rooted’ networks approach follows the connections and nodes of Huai Lu Luang’s network that influence and aid the village’s attempts to resist forest tenure reform.

Economic Contribution of Non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs) to Rural Livelihoods in the Tharawady District of Myanmar

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) income plays an important role in the household economy in the rural forest dwelling communities. This study use the data from 60 sample households of the three villages in Tharwady District of Myanmar to analysis the significant of NTFPs income in the rural household economy. Data collection was carried out through face to face household interview, focus group discussion, and government official interview. This study found that NTFPs income contributes 44.37%, and farm income and non-farm income contribute 32.55% and 23.07% to the total household income respectively. The lower and middle income level households derived more NTFPs income than high income level households. For low income households, share of NTFPs income in the total household income is over 75%. Major NTFPs include bamboo, thatch, firewood, charcoal, bamboo shoot, broom grass, bark and root, and others. Regression analysis showed that farm income, non-farm income and agricultural land own are scientifically and negatively correlated with the NTFPs incomes. This study suggests that Community Forestry (CF) programmes together with extension and environmental education programmes should be encouraged in order to reduce dependence on the natural forests. In considering the CF programmes it should be encouraged the participation of low and middle income household.

Changing Terrain of Environmental Citizenship in India's Forests

The paper traces the concept of environmental citizenship in India’s forests through the existing legal framework which is influenced by the movement for forest rights. I argue that the notion of environmental citizenship is contested given the presence of multiple actors and interests over natural resources in our forests. This contestation I present is heightened by the emerging idea of corporate citizenship where corporations assume the role of arbiters of citizenship rights in the absence of the state. It is within this frame of environmental citizenship and its inter-relationship with corporate citizenship that I analyze the changes proposed by the present government to our environmental laws. I conclude that the existing notion of environmental citizenship is fundamentally altered by these proposed changes primarily by the decreased participation of forest dwelling communities in decision making which is being positioned as a hurdle in the exploitation of resources, which in turn impacts the relationship between the environment, the citizen and democracy in India’s forests.

Natural Gum Resources in India and their Commercial Importance

Gums are produced from woody plants either naturally from exudations from cracks in the bark or damage to the bark by insects or animals. Gum flow is also artificially induced by incisions in the bark. The viscous, bri le nodule, which forms, can easily be removed by the hand. Gums are nothing but complex carbohydrate derivatives of a polysaccharide nature and are either soluble in water, as in the case of gum arable, or form mucilages by the absorption of large amounts of water. Uses of gums for domestic consumption and for sale to earn some cash are very common among the forest dwelling communities, particularly tribes in India. Annually around 5,000 tons of plant based gums produced in India. Gum Arabic, Gum Ghatti and Gum Karaya are some commercially important gums produced in India. These are used as in confectionaries, dairy products, beverages, as emulsifier in food products, petroleum and for oil-well- acidizing purpose in the industry. Continuous research support is needed for processing, value addition and product development to meet the changing demand of domestic and international consumers

The Tradition Health Care System among Gonds of Bastar, Chhattisgarh

The severely marginalised traditional healing knowledge of Gond and other tribal communities of Chhattisgarh is facing extinction. Therefore, documentation of such knowledge is essential and demands of the day. It is not only essential to guard against the threat of the loss of such knowledge, but also to prevent danger of future exploitation. The rich healing heritage of Gond is interwoven with their rich ethnic profile and unique cultural heritage. The rapid mining operations coupled with liberalisation of marketing forces, urbanisation and evil impact of globalisation have not only co modified the ceremony, rituals and healing practices of forest dwelling communities but also commercialised the traditional knowledge of Gond healers and elders. Co-modification of ceremonies has been manipulated by event management business houses with patronage of political leaders. The commercialisation of folk dance of Gond and other tribal communities of Chhattisgarh has been reflected in state and national level cultural programmes organised for attracting guests and clients. Globalisation forces have opened the pathways for an entry into new era where traditionally considered sacred and culturally relevant services are co-modified and commercialised. The marketing of medicinal plants related traditional knowledge through bio piracy has posed a serious threat to traditional healers and community elders of Gond tribe in preserving cultural value of local health tradition. The co-modification of traditional knowledge, folk dance and ceremonies have opened up avenues for disclosure of traditional medicine of Gond tribe in public domain.

Is Big Business Approach to Managing Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) Benign? Rising Unsustainable Extraction and Looming Policy Challenges

Until 1960s, the importance of NTFPs was unnoticed as they were mainly collected free of charge from forests to meet the subsistence needs of poor or forest dwelling communities. The economic significance of NTFPs became well known to people and governments in 1970s; this led to a global surge for the exploitation of these resources. As a result, large scale extractions of NTFPs have occurred and resulted into over-exploitation and extinction in some cases. Frequent occurrences of unsustainable extraction of NTFPs are now well cited in the literature. These concerns necessitate the establishment of a new framework for sustainable management of NTFPs on world-wide basis. This study provides a policy framework which recommends a set of policy initiatives on the part of governments, particularly in the tropical countries, to keep using this resource on sustainable basis.

The New Face of Debt-Peonage in the Bolivian Amazon: Social Networks and Bargaining Instruments

The debt-peonage system is an agreement between patrons and laborers in different economic activities worldwide. A common feature is social exploitation of laborers that generate profits to the patrons. In recent literature it has been argued that debt-peonage can be an economically sound arrangement that secures the needs of actors. The paper evaluates to what extent traditionally strong debt-peonage in forest-dwelling communities in the Bolivian Amazon, has developed in a way that better secures the needs and economic interest of multiple actors. Case studies in sixteen communities yielded qualitative information on debt relations between peasants, traders and former patrons. Debt-peonage changed from a mechanism to provide and keep workforce indebted to new social relationships, equitable commercial links, opportunity to access work capital and production chain diversification. This rapid shift was caused by important changes in land and forest regulations.

Conservation-induced Displacement: The Anatomy of a Win–Win Solution

India’s wildlife conservation strategy relies on creating ‘inviolate’ protected areas (PAs) free from human disturbance, using policing of PAs and physical displacement of human populations as the preferred tools to do so. Conservation-induced displacement causes not just loss of livelihood and dwellings but also increases vulnerability and impoverishment risks of displaced people. By and large, the state’s record of rehabilitating people displaced from PAs has been quite dismal in India. This article examines a rare case of conservation-induced displacement and resettlement where the livelihood outcomes for the displaced people are said to be positive. The relocation of over 400 households from the Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka in the late 1990s has been held up as a case where both conservation goals and local people’s livelihoods gained from displacement. The success of Bhadra has inspired a spate of calls by conservationists in India to use village relocation as a ‘win-win’ opportunity to attain simultaneously the goals of wildlife conservation and poverty alleviation for forest-dwelling communities. This article delves into the process and politics of displacement, resettlement and rehabilitation in Bhadra from the point of view of examining this claim and assessing its replicability elsewhere.

Autonomy Necessary but not Sufficient: Comparative Study of CFM, Nepal and JFM, India

‘Autonomy’ to local users is widely discussed and considered a necessary attribute to form and effectively function self-governing associations in common pool resources. Especially when the resource is local in scale, autonomy to local users can ensure good governance on the ground so locals are better equipped in developing effective institutions. This article compares varying degrees of autonomy to forest dwelling communities and its effect in decentralized forest management in two countries – Nepal and India. Comparison is made by using data collected from revisits of 6 IFRI sites from each country, after creating indices for functional autonomy, institutional functioning, forest quality, and forest dependence of the respective communities. The paper concludes that extending autonomy to communities is not enough; rather autonomy needs to be functional. Also, forming and putting institutions in place may not lead to improvement in forest quality and forest product availability. The newly created institutions need sufficient investment to make them robust, for which positive and proactive intervention by various agencies is essential. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jfl.v9i1.8592 Journal of Forestry and Livelihood Vol.9(1) 2010 33-44

Local Knowledge Suggests Significant Wildlife Decline and Forest Loss in Insurgent Affected Similipal Tiger Reserve, India

Similipal Tiger Reserve is a large insurgent-affected protected area (PA) located in the northern Eastern Ghats, India, with a resident tribal population of about 12,500. In 2007-08, we carried out a survey of conservation attitudes among 217 men and women (<20 years old) and documented their perceptions of wildlife and forest decline over a 20-year period from 1997-2007. Using data from the Forest Survey of India, we ascertained the decrease in forest cover (<40%), and using available census information we assessed tiger status over this period. Most of the respondents were primarily agriculturists (79%), and all households collected fuel-wood from the forest; 13% hunted and 49% fished. The majority of the respondents (80%) agreed that trees had disappeared, and 90% agreed that the tiger and elephant had disappeared. Respondents' recollections of Bengal tiger and Asian elephant sightings over a 20-year period indicated a drastic decline in their numbers, and perceptions of forest loss were supported by assessments of changes in dense forest cover indicating an annual deforestation rate of 1.577% yr−1 over a 20-year period, or loss of 274 km2 of dense forest. This suggests that forest dwelling communities have an acute awareness of disappearing forests and wildlife, and informant-based surveys can be indicative of the status of wildlife and forests in situations such as Similipal, where ecological studies are problematic due to civil conflict.