Foreign Enemies Research Articles

God Emperor Trump: Defending Western Civilization Against Neo-Marxism and Militant Islam

Abstract As we await the Second Coming of President Donald Trump, it is important to understand that his conservative Evangelical supporters view him not as a new Christ but as a new Constantine, a guardian of Western Civilization in a crucial period when we face threatened conquest by foreign enemies and infiltrators, Postmodern Neo-Marxism, and Militant Islam Thus he should be seen also as a new Charles Martel. He need not be a Bible-reading pietist to fulfill these roles, so Christians need not be ashamed of him if he isn’t.

Diversionary Politics and Territorial Disputes: Evidence from Turkish Airspace Incursions

Abstract Diversionary theories of interstate conflict suggest that domestic problems push leaders to initiate hostilities against foreign foes in order to garner support. However, the empirical support for this proposition is mixed as critics point out that leaders should not start conflicts that can be extremely costly for them, potentially even removing them from office. We propose that while leaders may not initiate new conflicts, they do tap into existing territorial disputes when facing internal disapproval. That is, they engage in material acts of foreign policy showing domestic audiences that they defend or emphasize their country's claim while being unlikely to result in full-scale armed confrontations. To test this claim, we use monthly data, covering the period 2013–2020, on leader approval and incursions into contested airspace from Turkey's long-standing territorial dispute with Greece. Results from time-series models offer support for our expectation.

“Presentism” Versus “Path Dependence”?

In the fifteen Russian textbooks of the 1990s examined in this article, the Second World War is subject to three levels of reflection: language, narrative templates, and the representation of contested events. The language used in the textbooks represents an amalgam of Soviet propagandistic clichés and uncritically adopted Western terminology. These textbooks also retain the same “schematic narrative template” of the Second World War, based on references to the expulsion of foreign enemies, found in Soviet textbooks. Significant transformations can be observed only in the representation of events, in which the authors’ harsh criticism of Stalin’s crimes comes to the fore. Yet these superficial changes did not alter the basic structures of history learning, which was one of the main reasons why working through the past during the Yeltsin era almost failed.

Советская внешняя политика в 1937–1941 гг.: восприятие молодежью Тамбовской области

This work is devoted to the study of the characteristics of the young generation’s perception of the foreign policy of the Soviet leadership in 1937–1941. The specificity of the development of the image of a foreign enemy in the minds of young people is shown. The main mechanisms of the development of patriotic sentiments of young people are investigated. As the survey of public attitudes has shown, the majority of young men and women, despite the changes in foreign policy, were preparing for war. As a result of the active work of propaganda structures, the prestige of the army service increased, and the day of conscription became one of the most long-awaited moments of adolescence. A sense of duty and personal responsibility for the future of their homeland contributed to the strengthening of the conscious patriotism of the younger generation, which testified to the high efficiency of the entire system of military and patriotic education on the eve of the Great Patriotic War.

La retórica rusófoba y anglófoba del régimen franquista en las películas Murió hace quince años, Rapsodia de sangre, y La mujer que vino del mar.

The defeat of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in World War II (1939-1945) and the approval of Resolution 39 by the General Assembly on February 9th, 1946, which determined the exclusion of Spain from international organizations established by the United Nations, forced the Francoist regime to modify its fascist agenda and territorial ambitions in Europe, North Africa, and its former colonies in America. Under this scenario, the Francoist regime affirmed that the USSR’s political and military intervention was to blame for the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), and for the socioeconomic crisis that followed. The Spanish sentiment of Russophobia and Anglophobia was politically justified and promoted by the Francoist regime’s propaganda since the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, and it proceeded during the Cold War period as well. The virtual isolation of Spain ended with the signature of the Pact of Madrid on September 23rd, 1953. The strategic pact with the United States allowed the Francoist regime to: consolidate a new military alliance; legitimize its power over victors and vanquished of the Spanish Civil War; revive the economy after the failure of autarchic policies; and refocus its gaze on its foreign enemies. The following movies: “He Died Fifteen Years Ago” (Dir. Rafael Gil, 1954); “The Woman Who Came from the Sea” (Dir. Francesco de Robertis, 1957); and “Blood Rhapsody” (Dir. Antonio Isasi-Isasmendi, 1957) embrace the forceful Francoist regime’s cinematic rhetoric that aims to delegitimize its historical political nemeses: USSR and United Kingdom, Communism and the unresolved Gibraltar issue, respectively.

Melanogenesis Connection with Innate Immunity and Toll-Like Receptors.

The epidermis is located in the outermost layer of the living body and is the place where external stimuli such as ultraviolet rays and microorganisms first come into contact. Melanocytes and melanin play a wide range of roles such as adsorption of metals, thermoregulation, and protection from foreign enemies by camouflage. Pigmentary disorders are observed in diseases associated with immunodeficiency such as Griscelli syndrome, indicating molecular sharing between immune systems and the machineries of pigment formation. Melanocytes express functional toll-like receptors (TLRs), and innate immune stimulation via TLRs affects melanin synthesis and melanosome transport to modulate skin pigmentation. TLR2 enhances melanogenetic gene expression to augment melanogenesis. In contrast, TLR3 increases melanosome transport to transfer to keratinocytes through Rab27A, the responsible molecule of Griscelli syndrome. TLR4 and TLR9 enhance tyrosinase expression and melanogenesis through p38 MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) and NFκB signaling pathway, respectively. TLR7 suppresses microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), and MITF reduction leads to melanocyte apoptosis. Accumulating knowledge of the TLRs function of melanocytes has enlightened the link between melanogenesis and innate immune system.

The Smuts Government’s justification of the emergency regulations and the impact thereof on the Ossewa-Brandwag, 1939 to 1945

The Second World War was a dynamic time in the South African past – a time when war was not only fought against foreign enemies but also at home within the Afrikanerdom. The metaphorical battle on the home front had two sides. The one was resistance against the Smuts government’s war effort, and the second was the Smuts government’s actions to curb internal unrest. The main attempt to dampen the internal unrest manifested itself in the form of various emergency regulations and war measures. These regulations and measures affected the Ossewa-Brandwag, a dualistic organisation within the Afrikanerdom, which would eventually lead the resistance directly against the war effort. This article delves into the Smuts government’s justification of the emergency regulations and analyses the impact thereof on the Ossewa-Brandwag.

How to feel French: the politics of community and emotion in the siege of Paris (1649)

Abstract As royal forces besieged Parisian frondeur rebels in early 1649, pamphleteers developed potent rhetorical tools to rally virtuous French people against the foreign enemies in their midst. Authors mixed contemporary conceptions of emotion with accepted wisdom on embodied traits in order to bind their audience together. Their vision of patrie community was defined by love and sacrifice for the innocent French, and rage against the foreigners who persecuted them. The rout of frondeur forces at the battle of Charenton on 8 February 1649 provided a tragic, but useful opportunity to distil this message. Propagandists imagined encounters between the royalist general Condé and his slain friend and lieutenant Châtillon to clarify the emotions and actions befitting a true Frenchman, in the throes of a burgeoning civil war. Even in the face of a stinging defeat, rebel authors effectively made shared emotions the foundation of a ‘pure’ French community.

Words as Powerful Weapons: Dysphemism in Trump’s Covid-19 Speeches

Covid-19 pandemic constitutes the greatest threat to the worldwide population and countries nowadays. Donald Trump, the president of the greatest country in the world, has frequently received heavy criticism as a result of his language use in the period of Covid-19. Therefore, the present paper examines dysphemistic expressions used in Trump’s discourse on Covid-19. A sample of dysphemistic examples adopted in Trump’s daily speeches in a crucial week of 11 th till 18 th of March 2020 was analysed. The researcher relied on the Critical-political Discourse Analysis by Van Dijk (1997; 2001), Conceptual Metaphor theory by Lakoff and Johnson (1980), and the concept of dysphemism by Allan and Burridge (2006). It has been found that Trump referred to strong language and war metaphors to defend himself and his point of view, to shape Americans’ thoughts and views, or to attack other countries or institutions. Several conceptual metaphors, including Covid-19 is a) an invisible enemy, b) a foreign enemy, c) a dangerous threat, and d) a global battle, were commonly used. The data analysis shows that Trump has a linguistic mastery of eloquent and persuasive devices in political discourse which permitted him to make a shift in Americans’ thoughts and opinions. For future research, the current paper suggests investigating Trump’s paralinguistic features in speeches, such as body language, facial expressions, tone and pitch of voice, eye movements, and hand gestures. Keywords: Dysphemism; Metaphor; Discourse Analysis; Covid-19; Donald Trump

Design and Control of Bioinspired Millibots

In the last decade, there has been great progress in the field of smart materials and technologies for the development of bio‐inspired artificial insects. An insect‐mimetic functional nanocomposite, namely, millimeter‐sized robot (millibot), based on magnetite, zeolitic imidazolate framework‐8, and polytetrafluoroethylene is successfully prepared. The millibots are designed through a rational chemical design for controlling its multi‐functions by external light and magnetic field, which act as fuels. The millibots can be effectively loaded with CO2 gas and remotely controlled by photothermal energy for the release of CO2 molecules from the laser‐induced millibots to anesthetize fruit flies as a potential foreign enemy. A remote regulation of the photo‐ and magnetic field‐induced millibot dynamic locomotion is demonstrated. As a proof of principle, millibots equipped with a gelatin particle encapsulating rhodamine B are efficaciously used in the bio‐inspired spawning of an artificial insect. The materials and strategies could inspire new designs for the development of high‐performance biologically active insect‐type robots in the future.

PAKISTAN ARMY LEGENDS

Pakistan possesses a huge list of people who are honored as the National heroes because of their relentless and unsurpassed services for protecting and safeguarding the motherland. The sacrifices made by these daring people have ensured the long term existence and prosperity of the country in a world where there are continuous challenges and threats from other power. The majority of these national heroes belong to the Armed Forces of Pakistan as they are always on the front line while shielding the country against foreign enemies. This series of sacrifices started soon after independence in 1947 and is still continued. The major acts of bravery and valor were witnessed at the times of war when the blood of these brave people irrigated the fields of prosperity and wellbeing for the country. There are other heroes too who acted courageously at the times other than war and made histories due to their bold actions in the face of death. This paper presents a brief overview of all the heroes who made sacrifices for the country and made it safe against the internal as well as external intrusions. The lives of these heroes are a real role model for the people of the new generation who want to dedicate their lives and services for the protection and safety of their motherland.

The Xenoi and Greeks between Opposition and ‘Hybridization’.

The paper examines the opposition between Greeks and the so-called Others (foreigners, barbarians, etc.) as represented in Aeschylus’ surviving plays. This antithesis has become a major focus of scholarly interest not only in philological studies, but also in the modern historical, philosophical and political thought, where it corresponds to the radical opposition between ‘Greekness’ and ‘Otherness’, as well as between West and East. By focusing on this topic, the paper presents an innovative interpretation of some aeschylean texts taken from Suppliants, Agamemnon and Seven against Thebes, looking at foreign characters such as Suppliants’ Egyptian herald or Agamemnon’s Cassandra, but also at ethnically hybrid characters (the Danaids’ Chorus of the Suppliants, whose ancient bond with the Argive land is explicit, and Polynices’ army, described as an external foreign enemy). The aim of the texts’ selection is to capture the interest on Aeschylus’ lexis related to the semantic sphere of the foreigner. The assumption is that a methodology based on semantic values (especially of the terms ξένος or ξενόω, and of some compounds such as ἀστόξενος and ἐχθρόξενος) well witnesses how the Aeschylean lexicon maintains the broad semantic spectrum of the term ξένος, with the frequent co-presence of the meaning of ‘guest’ alongside that of ‘foreigner’. The argument is that in Aeschylean theatre the Greek/Others polarity is presented not only in terms of a contrast/opposition with Greekness (with the positive element of the pair destined to predominate over the Otherness), but also in terms of intermingling/confusion. Aeschylus is not only the poet of the conflict between Greeks and Barbarians, but also the inventor of collective characters in which Greek and foreign elements constantly co-exist, in order to determine hybrid identities.

Chindasvinth, the ‘Gothic disease’, and the Monothelite crisis

Abstract Taking up important observations made by L. A. García Moreno on King Chindasvinth’s involvement in the Monothelite crisis via connections to North Africa and to Rome, this article argues that a deep division within the Visigothic episcopate on the king’s policy should already be assumed for October 646, when Chindasvinth assembled the 7th Synod of Toledo. A new reading of the synod’s first canon, usually interpreted as a mere confirmation of Chindasvinth’s law on high treason of 641/2, proceeds from the observation that the synod’s decisions must be seen as a minory vote, given the fact that the synod was not attended by more than 30 bishops and several episcopal representatives, and that it lacked any attendance or support from the ecclesiastical provinces of Tarraconensis and Septimania. As is shown, fears were expressed at the synod somewhat shroudedly that numerous clerics of every rank could find a common cause with a foreign enemy beyond the frontiers and that, as a consequence, an infringement of the orthodox faith could result. This most likely referred to the clergy of Septimania and Aquitania, whose territories the Visigothic kingdom and the Frankish kingdom neighboured. This paper argues that Frankish Aquitania, being the south-western part of the Austrasian kingdom of the Merovingian king Sigibert III, never adopted the policy of Sigibert’s brother Clovis II, who assembled a synod of the episcopate of Neustria and Burgundy at Chalon-sur-Saône in support of Pope Martin’s condemnation of Monothelitism at the Lateran synod of 649. While it is not clear whether Sigibert prevented the Aquitanian clergy from attending the synod for religious reasons or for diplomatic considerations related to Constantinople, the division of both the Frankish and Visigothic episcopates over the issue of supporting the Lateran Council fostered a constellation in which treason could become a crime with strong religious overtones.

The Long Drive to Prison

The Long Drive to Prison

Chinese Nationalism Under Xi Jinping Revisited

In China, nationalism that took root in the era of globalization under the third-generation leadership of Jiang Zemin is principally meant to address the internal threats challenging party legitimacy and stability and not to resist the foreign enemies, as was the goal in the twentieth century. This is because internal stability is considered prerequisite to harness the potentials of globalization. Paradoxically therefore, nationalism and globalization, that are antithetical forces, go hand in hand in China. Under the current leadership, both the forces of nationalism and globalization are underscored in Xi Jinping’s dream project- the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Notably, the success of BRI is contingent on the persistence of globalization externally. But the rising trends of de-globalization in the West do not augur well for the BRI that has been envisaged to not only meet the demands of a slowing economy but to expand China’s global footprints, and thereby, fulfil the China Dream. Therefore, a sense of insecurity pervades Chinese nationalism. This ‘insecure’ nationalism under Xi Jinping is engendering a belligerent turn to Chinese foreign policy.

Deadly force: Contract, killing, sacrifice

This article proposes a political prehistory of drone theory that traces its juridico-political evolution from the 17th century to the present day. To outline my argument, I construct a constellation between Hobbes’s theory of sovereign punishment in Leviathan and Chamayou’s critique of drone warfare in Drone Theory to illuminate the political origins of drone violence. First, I argue that Hobbes’s social contract theory lays the conceptual groundwork for Chamayou’s drone theory. Second, I contend that Hobbes’s theory of the sovereign punishment of domestic citizens preempts Chamayou’s critique of drone warfare against foreign enemies. Finally, I speculate that Hobbes’s theory of punishment is founded upon a sacrificial paradigm that returns in the phenomenon of domestic drone strikes. In summary, I argue that Hobbes might be something close to the first drone theorist insofar as his political theory systematically produces the state of exception between citizen and enemy in which the drone operates today. What, then, are the theoretical origins of drone warfare? How does the punishment of citizens prefigure drone warfare against foreign enemies? To what extent might even citizens themselves be a species of drone who may be activated by the sovereign at any point?

Online Chinese Nationalism and the Discursive Construction of a Nationalist Hero: The Case of Jin Jing

The rise of popular online Chinese nationalism has been interpreted by many researchers largely as a response to the alleged hostility and threat from foreign enemies. While the perceived enemies play a key role in shaping the dynamics of contemporary Chinese nationalism, little has been discussed so far as to the importance of a nationalist hero in the creation and mobilisation of online Chinese nationalism. This research attempts to address this gap by analysing the online discussion about the case of Jin Jing. Jin Jing, a disabled torchbearer and Paralympic fencer, was praised by Chinese netizens as a national hero after protecting the torch during the Paris leg of the 2008 Beijing Olympic torch relay. By using a critical discourse analysis of online posts relating to Jin Jing and the incident, this paper aims to discuss the processes and interactions in the making of a national hero in a popular media discourse, and how the online discursive practices of creating, worshipping and defending a hero can contribute to the building of the nation.

Hawks, Doves, and Peace: An Experimental Approach

AbstractAn old adage holds that “only Nixon could go to China”; that is, hawkish leaders face fewer domestic barriers than doves when it comes to pursuing reconciliation with foreign enemies. However, empirical evidence for this proposition is mixed. In this article, we clarify competing theories, elucidate their implications for public opinion, and describe the results of a series of survey experiments designed to evaluate whether and why there is a hawk's advantage. We find that hawks are indeed better positioned domestically to initiate rapprochement than doves. We also find support for two key causal mechanisms: Voters are more confident in rapprochement when it is pursued by a hawk and are more likely to view hawks who initiate conciliation as moderates. Further, the hawk's advantage persists whether conciliatory efforts end in success or failure. Our microfoundational evidence thus suggests a pronounced domestic advantage for hawks who deliver the olive branch.

Dictators Against Dependence: Albania and Korea

When a linguistically distinctive ethnicity is surrounded by much larger powers, its leader usually needs resources from one of them – and then that power may try to absorb it. The local leader quickly switches to reliance on the previous protector's main foreign enemy, simultaneously purging (often killing) domestic rivals. Albania's long history through Enver Hoxha, like North Korea's under Kim Jong‐un still, shows recurrent examples of this link between independence and dictatorship – although not all tyrants emerge in this way. The essay also discloses violent aspects of past South Korean politics that few readers of English know. Historical parallels can be observed without any universal covering “law.” Further examples explore limits of this method. History can inform policies toward nonproliferation (American, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean), elucidate the recent effects of surrounding pluralistic states on small countries, and provide evidence about the likely benefits of Korean patriotism and reunification.

Патриотизм: социально-философский подход

<p>Несмотря на то что в России активно используется патриотическая риторика, а на официальном уровне осуществляются программы по патриотическому воспитанию молодежи, у граждан нет четкого понимания, какой именно патриотизм им предлагается. Отечественные ученые либо точно так же настаивают на необходимости патриотического воспитания, либо обращаются к проблеме с точки зрения прикладной социологии. Автор обсуждает многогранные теоретические аспекты патриотизма, рассматривая, в каких дискурсивных контекстах про патриотизм спорят современные социальные философы и политические теоретики, выделяет несколько моделей «патриотического проекта», отстаиваемых социальными философами, несмотря на критику и осуждение патриотической идеи.</p><p>На примере российских реалий автор соотносит отечественную патриотическую риторику с теми выводами, к которым уже пришли мыслители и ученые на Западе. Вместо того чтобы делать акцент в патриотическом воспитании на конструировании внешних врагов и на милитаризации, официальная пропаганда может позаимствовать отстаиваемые «конституционным патриотизмом» принципы — любовь не просто к стране, но уважение к закону, к сложившимся демократическим институтам, желание поучаствовать в формировании гражданского общества и т. д. Настоящее исследование — не столько попытка восполнить этот пробел, сколько намерение перевести научную дискуссию на новый, теоретический уровень.</p>