Forced Repatriation Research Articles

Detention, denial, and death: migration hazards for refugee children.

Detention, denial, and death: migration hazards for refugee children.

Psychological features of North Korean female refugees on the MMPI–2: Latent profile analysis.

This study examined the heterogeneity in the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2nd Edition (MMPI-2; Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) profiles of North Korean female refugee population (N = 2,163) using latent profile analysis (LPA). The North Korean female refugee sample arrived at Hanawon, South Korea's resettlement center for North Korean refugees in 2008 and 2009 and took the MMPI-2 as part of an initial psychological screen. The analysis, which included the T scores of the 6 validity scales and the 10 standard clinical scales, identified 4 classes with distinctive psychological features: Class 1 (nonclinical), Class 2 (demoralized), Class 3 (somatized), and Class 4 (detached). The 4 covariates entered into the model (age, education, affiliation with a religion, and the number of forced repatriations) impacted the likelihood of belonging to certain classes. As hypothesized, older age, fewer years of education, and more incidents of forced repatriation predicted higher proneness to psychopathology. However, contrary to our expectation, having a religious faith did not emerge as a salient protective factor. The current LPA results revealed distinct heterogeneous subgroups that previous research on the MMPI and MMPI-2 profiles of refugee populations overlooked with the assumption of a homogeneous sample. Clinical implications for the treatment of North Korean female refugees and the limitations of the study are discussed.

Violations of International Child Rights Laws: Immigration Detention in the United States of America

A cliche is worth repeating when its meaning is impactful, timeless and the truth that underlines its message is threatened. Indeed, children the future; they are the world's most valuable resource and its best hope for the future. Therefore, regardless of their nationality or the circumstances surrounding their birth, children must be revered in accordance with their immeasurable importance. However, immigrant children whose parents have been deported, who enter the United States unaccompanied or who detained alongside their parents in immigration detention facilities suffer human rights violations, especially those pertaining to their status as children. In addition to becoming 'lost' in the American foster care system, which is already overcrowded, violations of international child's rights, recognized in international human and child rights treaties and conventions also prevalent in immigration detention centers and occurred during forced repatriation. This article will explore the rights of children that present in international instruments, specifically, the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons and the American Convention on Human Rights Pact Of San Jose, Costa Rica. By exploring these international instruments, a sense of the generalized standards and rights relating to children will become visible, which will be starkly contrasted with the reality of immigrant children, especially those having a nexus with Mexico, who pushed into foster care, live in immigration detention facilities when their parents in removal proceedings or experience immediate repatriation to Mexico upon their entry into the United States.

North African refugees, fleeing the fighting, admitted to Sicilian hospitals from January 1st to June 10th, 2011

As declared on June 1st 2011 by Italian Minister Maroni, many boats have transported about 42,000 Africans (90% men) fleeing the fighting, almost all to Lampedusa, a small island off Italy’s southern coast, from January 1st to June 10th, 2011. Mostly were Tunisians, Nigerians, Ethiopians, Eritreans and Somalis. All patients who needed hospitalization were transported by the ‘‘Emergency 118 Helicopter Service’’, to those Sicilian hospitals in which beds were reserved for this purpose. A prospective analysis of migrants’ admissions in Sicilian hospitals was carried out. Patients were classified according to the admission diagnosis reported on medical records of 118 and data were aggregated according to: disease, sex and ward in which hospitalization was required. 97 patients required hospitalization in 6 Sicilian hospitals: females/males ratio was 57/40. The median age was 26 (range 14–45) years: women are a bit younger than males: 24 (range 16–32) and 27 (range 14–45) years. The nationality was declared by 66 patients: they were mainly Tunisian, Nigerians, and Libyans. Women were admitted to hospital almost exclusively for obstetrics and gynecological problems, while men for trauma or severe dehydration problems and attempted suicide to avoid forced repatriation to their own countries (Table 1). All were discharged in good health. These data confirm the reassuring news on migrant’ good state of health upon arrival in Italy. This should reassure the people and push the Italian and European public health systems to maintain their procedures, including screening and/or vaccination, hygiene and the chance to have an immediate cultural integration and work. It would vary important to create an international task force with the aim to actively protect the health of refugees during the crossing of the Strait of Sicily, where it is estimated that 1,500 refugees died. This seems more important than the health problems of those who arrive at Lampedusa.

Belligerent Broken Hill Fighting the Forced Repatriation of Allied Aliens During World War I

In 1918 armed military and state police attempted to round up and forcibly repatriate allied Italian citizens across Australia for service in the Italian Army. Travelling from state to state, the Italian Consul General and the Australian Defence Department worked hand in glove to facilitate this forcible deportation. In May 1918 they arrived in the outback mining town of Broken Hill where they met with an unexpected level of hostility and resistance. This paper considers how the particular characteristics of Broken Hill led to resistance to this round up by the Italian community. The result was an increased militancy among Italians across Australia in opposing the call by their Consul and their forcible repatriation by the Australian government.This article has been peer-reviewed

Displacement and stigma: The social-psychological crisis of the deportee

The phenomenon of forced repatriation for non-citizens has grown exponentially since the passing of the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 and the Patriot Act of 2001. This development is the `natural' result of the three wars on the globalized `other': the war on drugs, the war on terrorism, and the war on the immigrant (see Brotherton and Kretsedemas, 2008). Based on five years of ethnographic study (2002—7) with Dominican deportees in both the Dominican Republic and the United States we set out to answer two questions: how do Dominican deportees fare when they return to their `homeland' after living most of their lives in the United States? And how are deportees reacted to by different levels of Dominican society after being labeled by the public media as criminals and as anti-social elements? In our analysis of the data we found that the crisis of subjectivity of the deportee hinged around two prominent themes: the twin notions of place and displacement and the experience of stigmatization. We concluded that almost regardless of how long the deportee had lived in the United States the stain of a criminal past on his or her identity was permanent. Furthermore, the majority felt that despite their `freedom' they were still `doing time' in a world to which flock thousands helped by these same deportees to get the most out of their (tourist) time (Kempadoo, 1999).

Refugees and the Regional Dynamics of Peacebuilding

This article examines the relationship between refugees and the regional dynamics of peacebuilding. It argues that recent approaches to peacebuilding have adopted a narrow understanding of conflict. The article outlines the links between protracted refugee situations and regional insecurity to argue that the relationship between peacebuilding and refugees goes beyond repatriation. Instead, the presence of “ spoilers” within the refugee-populated areas, the potential for early and forced repatriation, and the politicization of refugees while in exile have all the proven potential to undermine peacebuilding efforts, while the experience of exile may enable refugees to contribute to the peacebuilding process.

The Myth of the Borderless World: Refugees and Repatriation Policy

This essay explores the impact of the end of the Cold War on the counter-refugee-crisis policies of the United Nations and its strongest member states. I argue that during the Cold War, state interests were subordinated to the refugee interests for two reasons. First, refugees were few in number and tended to be educated, skilled, and informed (valuable). Second, the WWII experience of the Holocaust in Europe led to the institutionalization of concern for the fate of persecuted groups at the expense of state interests. After the end of the Cold War, however, a number of the Soviet Union's allies and successor states began to fail, and these state failures, combined with unprecedented access to information about living conditions abroad, led to refugee flows that impacted powerful states. Whereas the preferred counter-refugee crisis policy during the Cold War was resettlement, after the Cold War it shifted to repatriation: voluntary repatriation in the best cases, and forced repatriation in the worst. The essay's primary focus is an assessment of the consequences of this policy shift from resettlement to repatriation of refugees. After introducing a number of important empirical findings regarding the frequency and scale of contemporary refugee crises, I conclude that although in some cases the policy of supporting voluntary repatriation is a good thing, it may have the unintended consequence of involuntary or forced repatriations as receiving states feel little compulsion to resettle these refugees within their borders.

The significance of protracted refugee situations

Protracted refugee populations not only constitute over 70% of the world's refugees but are also a principal source of many of the irregular movements of people around the world today. The long-term presence of refugee populations in much of the developing world has come to be seen by many host states in these regions as a source of insecurity. In response, host governments have enacted policies of containing refugees in isolated and insecure camps, have prevented the arrival of additional refugees and, in extreme cases, have engaged in forcible repatriation. Not surprisingly, these refugee populations are also increasingly perceived as possible sources of insecurity for Western states. Refugee camps are sometimes breeding grounds for international terrorism and rebel movements. These groups often exploit the presence of refugees to engage in activities that destabilise not only host states but also entire regions.

Defining the problem

Protracted refugee populations not only constitute over 70% of the world's refugees but are also a principal source of many of the irregular movements of people around the world today. The long-term presence of refugee populations in much of the developing world has come to be seen by many host states in these regions as a source of insecurity. In response, host governments have enacted policies of containing refugees in isolated and insecure camps, have prevented the arrival of additional refugees and, in extreme cases, have engaged in forcible repatriation. Not surprisingly, these refugee populations are also increasingly perceived as possible sources of insecurity for Western states. Refugee camps are sometimes breeding grounds for international terrorism and rebel movements. These groups often exploit the presence of refugees to engage in activities that destabilise not only host states but also entire regions.

Security implications of protracted refugee situations

Protracted refugee populations not only constitute over 70% of the world's refugees but are also a principal source of many of the irregular movements of people around the world today. The long-term presence of refugee populations in much of the developing world has come to be seen by many host states in these regions as a source of insecurity. In response, host governments have enacted policies of containing refugees in isolated and insecure camps, have prevented the arrival of additional refugees and, in extreme cases, have engaged in forcible repatriation. Not surprisingly, these refugee populations are also increasingly perceived as possible sources of insecurity for Western states. Refugee camps are sometimes breeding grounds for international terrorism and rebel movements. These groups often exploit the presence of refugees to engage in activities that destabilise not only host states but also entire regions.

Case studies: contemporary protracted refugee populations in Africa and Asia

Protracted refugee populations not only constitute over 70% of the world's refugees but are also a principal source of many of the irregular movements of people around the world today. The long-term presence of refugee populations in much of the developing world has come to be seen by many host states in these regions as a source of insecurity. In response, host governments have enacted policies of containing refugees in isolated and insecure camps, have prevented the arrival of additional refugees and, in extreme cases, have engaged in forcible repatriation. Not surprisingly, these refugee populations are also increasingly perceived as possible sources of insecurity for Western states. Refugee camps are sometimes breeding grounds for international terrorism and rebel movements. These groups often exploit the presence of refugees to engage in activities that destabilise not only host states but also entire regions.

Towards solutions for protracted refugee situations

Protracted refugee populations not only constitute over 70% of the world's refugees but are also a principal source of many of the irregular movements of people around the world today. The long-term presence of refugee populations in much of the developing world has come to be seen by many host states in these regions as a source of insecurity. In response, host governments have enacted policies of containing refugees in isolated and insecure camps, have prevented the arrival of additional refugees and, in extreme cases, have engaged in forcible repatriation. Not surprisingly, these refugee populations are also increasingly perceived as possible sources of insecurity for Western states. Refugee camps are sometimes breeding grounds for international terrorism and rebel movements. These groups often exploit the presence of refugees to engage in activities that destabilise not only host states but also entire regions.

Migrations from Yugoslavia to Germany: Migrants, emigrants, refugees and asylum-seekers

Migrations from Yugoslavia to Germany have a long tradition. There have been various economic and social causes, and in some periods even political ones for that phenomenon. Taking into consideration the historical aspect and also the contemporary migration flows, the dynamics of migrations of the Yugoslav population to Germany has the following stages in its development. The first stage had begun in late XIX century and ended with the World War I. Although the overseas migration flows prevailed, yet the German agriculture and its mine industry attracted a part of the Yugoslav population. Between the two world wars mostly "Westfahl Slovenes" and Croats and Serbs from Bosnia-Herzegovina got "temporary employed" in the Rhine-Westfahl industrial area, along with several thousand Serb-Croat-Slovene agricultural seasonal workers per year. The second stage began immediately after the Second World War when most of about 200,000 citizens from the former Yugoslavia, being mostly refugees, moved from the West European to overseas countries, but some of them stayed in Germany. Involuntary migrants and refugees, however, returned in great number from Germany to Yugoslavia. At that stage non-extradition of war criminals on the part of the West occupying powers on German territory, then disregard of West German Governments of the anti-Yugoslav activities of the part of extreme Yugoslav emigration, and different interpretation of the bilateral agreement on extradition, became the essential problem in relations between SFR Yugoslavia and FR Germany. The third stage in development of migrations commenced in early 1960s. At that time, Germany and other Western countries became prominently immigrational, while since mid-1960s till 1973 economic emigrants from Yugoslavia became more and more important in the German economic space. From 1954 to 1967 migration of Yugoslav citizens had not yet been intensive and their intention was mostly to work abroad. Illegal employment was, however, prominent at that time. Due to the normalisation of political relations, re-establishment of diplomatic relations and conclusion of bilateral agreements that legally defined employment of foreign workers, since 1968 till 1973 a great number of Yugoslavs got employed in FR Germany. The contemporary migrations from FR Yugoslavia to Germany resulted from the economic and political crisis in the former SFRY as well as from the civil wars that were waged in the Yugoslav territory. FR Germany became the most important destination country of Yugoslav migrants - workers, refugees, false asylum-seekers and political emigrants. Different categories of migrants from Yugoslavia to Germany enjoy the treatment that is in accordance with the immigration policies of the German governments as well as with the degree of development of the German-Yugoslav political and economic relations, and the degree of the established co-operation in the field of legal assistance and social welfare. Migrant workers, who have legally regulated their employment and residence status, could in the future expect to gain assistance from their mother country in getting efficient protection of their rights and interests in all stages of the migration process. Numerous migrants asylum-seekers, in spite of the proclaimed international protection, share, however, the fate resulting from the politically motivated measures and actions taken by the German authorities within the arbitrary decision-making of the right and/or abuse of the right to asylum. This is the reason why as early as in late 1994 the Government of FRG announced that it would expel foreigners from the country. The remaining refugees, or actually the so-called false asylum-seekers in FR Germany, share the fate of forced repatriation. Within this category special emphasis should be placed on the attitude of the German government to the Albanians and Roma from Kosovo. At first, the Germans treated the Albanians from Kosovo as politically persecuted persons, offering them refuge. Then they declared them (and Roma also) to be false asylum-seekers and insisted on readmission - their gradual repatriation to Kosovo. Considering both positive and negative implications of the migration process, the key issue for the citizens from Serbia and Montenegro who live in Germany remains the following: maintenance of their national identity, cherishing of their mother tongue and culture, keeping up relations with their mother country, social gathering - in various associations, clubs and organisations, education in their mother tongue, what particularly includes comprehensive additional teaching for children in Serbian, as well as better information dissemination.

A Critical Anti-Racist Interrogation of Voluntary/Forced Repatriation Theory: The Intersections of African Refugees’ Dilemma

The author examines the historical/theoretical voluntary repatriation framework, which asserts that refugees should only repatriate to their country of origin on a voluntary basis when the socio-political and ethnic situation that initiated their problem comes to an end. This theory articulates durable protection and resettlement initiatives for refugees in general. Also, the above theory is contrasted with the present re-articulated forced repatriation theories, which state that refugees should repatriate to unsafe conditions in their country of origin. Furthermore, the study interrogates the intersectionality of African refugees’ dilemma and the apprehensions of refugees’ host countries, and conceptualizes the specific ideology that legitimizes the forced repatriation of refugees, and the impacts of accepting the emerging theory using a critical anti-racist framework.

Protection of North Korean Escapees Under International Law

AbstractThe primary purpose of this article is to examine the current situation of North Korean escapees in China and Russia and to search for international legal measures protecting their human rights. Since the mid-1990s, many North Koreans have escaped from either their country or from working places in another country, not to return to North Korea for political and economic reasons. Their defections have been accelerated by the severe food crisis plaguing North Korea. As the number of the escapees has grown, their status has become a critical point of contention among the States concerned. It finally became a major issue with the forcible repatriation of seven North Korean escapees in January 2000. In order to protect the human rights of these seven, and to establish a workable precedent for other defectors, international legal measures should be considered as soon as possible. This question will be examined here in light of the principles of the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and other relevant legal measures. Crucial points in answer to this question thus may be found within the provisions of the 1951 Convention. Diplomatic considerations should be also taken on these legal grounds. For a final resolution, the international cooperation of governments and NGOs is urgently required.

Ethical Considerations in the Management of Asylum Seekers on Hunger Strike

Hunger strikes have confronted physicians with complex ethical dilemmas throughout history. Asylum seekers under threat of forced repatriation have emerged as a new category of hunger strikers, posing novel challenges for management. The management of 3 Cambodian asylum seekers on hunger strike admitted to a hospital in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, posted important ethical dilemmas for the physicians and mental health experts involved in their care. Several factors confounded the task of assessment and decision making, including language and cultural barriers, the patients' past exposure to persecution by authorities, and the complexities of the legal procedures being pursued. Different rules appeared to govern the actions of the hunger strikers, the medical team, and the immigration authorities, creating a ¿malignant triangle¿ of mounting confrontation. Recent recommendations for the management of asylum-seeking hunger strikers include the appointment of an external physician of confidence and the writing of a confidential advance directive specifying the hunger striker's wishes about resuscitation in the event of collapse. In addition, we consider the value of constituting an ad hoc ethics committee to advise the responsible physician on points of conflict in managing the hunger strike. The advantages and limitations of these proposals in relation to the particular cultural, historical, and contextual issues relevant to asylum seekers are examined herein.

On Repatriation: Plus ça change, plus c'est la même chose

Excerpts from Barbara E. Harrell-Bond's address. "Forcible Repatriation: The Continuing Relevance of the Subject" which opened the Canadian-funded symposium "Forcible Repatriation After WWII" held the Oxford University Examination Schools, Oxford, England, March 20-22, 1987.

Forcible Repatriation of Minors: The Competing Rights of Parent and Child

Forcible Repatriation of Minors: The Competing Rights of Parent and Child

Reviews of Books

Abstract The general—and the man: Marlborough By Corelli Barnett (Eyre Methuen) £5.50, 288 pages. Reviewed by S. G. P. Ward. The logic and language of war: War and Politics By Bernard Brodie (Cassell) £3.50, 514 pages. Reviewed by Ronald Lewin. “Contrary to normal British practice”: The Last Secret: Forcible Repatriation to Russia, 1944–47 By Nicholas Bethell (Andre Deutsch) £3.50, 224 pages. Reviewed by D. C. Watt. We didn't fall—we slipped: Descent from Power—British Foreign Policy 1945–1973 By F. S. Northedge (George Allen & Unwin) £6.00, 382 pages Grievous bodily harm: The Future of Violence By Gerald Priestland (Hamish Hamilton) £3.50, 171 pages. Reviewed by Norman F. Dixon. On the beat, at the demo: The Police Revolution By Peter Evans (Allen and Unwin) £3.60, 188 pages. Reviewed by W. Pullinger. Lessons in procurement: Attack Aircraft of the West By Bill Gunston (Ian Allan) £3.95, 271 pages. Reviewed by S. M. W. Hickey. When the chairman leaves his chair: Uncertain Passage: China's Transition to the post-Mao Era By A. Doak Barnett (George Allen & Unwin) Hardback £5.00, Paperback £2.00, 387 pages. Reviewed by David S. G. Goodman. Naval rivalry—: The Great Naval Race By Peter Padfield (Hart-Davis, MacGibbon) £5.75, 382 pages. Reviewed by Geoffrey Bennett. —and a failure to contain it: Race to Pearl Harbor: The Failure of the Second London Naval Conference and the Onset of World War II By Stephen E. Pelz (Harvard) £8.75, 268 pages. Reviewed by P. A. Towle. “Psywar”: Psychological Warfare By Charles Roetter (Batsford) £3.50, 199 pages. Reviewed by Norman F. Dixon. Sketch of an anarchist: Sabate: Guerrilla Extraordinary By Antonio Tellez (Davis Poynter) £3.50, 183 pages. Reviewed by Peter Janke. Terror and counter-terror: Revolutionary Warfare in the Middle East: The Israelis vs. The Fedayeen By Dr Bard O'Neill (Paladin Press, Colorado) $5.95,140 pages. Reviewed by Edgar O'Ballance. Labour without reward: Chief of Staff: The Diaries of Licutenant-Gencral Sir Henry Pownall 1940–1944 Edited by Brian Bond (Leo Cooper) £5.75, 205 pages. Reviewed by C. N. Foxley-Norris. The Middle East: Arabic Political Memoirs and other Studies By Elie Kedourie (Frank Cass) £5.95, 320 pages Modern Turkey By Geoffrey Lewis (Ernest Benn) £3.75, 250 pages. Reviewed by John Stephenson. The Fritsch Affair: Hitler and His Generals: The Hidden Crisis January-June 1938 By Harold C. Deutsch (Oxford University Press) £8.74, 452 pages. Reviewed by R. A. Mason. Before the Bolsheviks: The Social Prelude to Stalinism By Roger Pethybridge (Macmillan) £7.00, 343 pages. Reviewed by J. Miller. Superlative sailor: Cunningham the Commander By S. W. Pack (Balsford) £6.50, 323 pages. Reviewed by B. B. Schofield “Market-Garden”: A Bridge Too Far By Cornelius Ryan (Hamish Hamilton) £3.95, 512 pages. Reviewed by Napier Crookenden. Fighting in the fiords: Narvik By Captain Peter Dickens, DSO, MBE, DSC, RN(retd). (Ian Allan) £2.75, 184 pages. Reviewed by B. B. Schofield. For this relief much thanks: “Thank God We Kept the Flag Flying”: The Siege and Relief of Ladysmith 1899–1900 By Kenneth Griffith (Hutchinson) £5.95, 398 pages. Reviewed by E. K. G. Sixsmith. Beaux Gestes: The French Foreign Legion By James Wellard (Andre Deutsch) £2.95, 142 pages. Reviewed by E. W. W. Fowler. The naval revolution: Carrier Operations in World War II By David Brown (Ian Allan): Volume I, The Royal Navy, £3.95, 160 pages; Volume II, The Pacific Navies, £3.75, 152 pages. Reviewed by J. L. Moulton. The British armies of India: The Indian Army: The Garrison of British Imperial India 1822–1922 By T. A. Heathcote (David & Charles) £5.25, 215 pages The British armies of India: Memoirs of the British Raj: A Soldier in India By Brigadier R. C. B. Bristow, OBE (Johnson) £3.50, 208 pages. Reviewed by John Stephenson. Three picture books: Winston Churchill By Elizabeth Longford (Sidgwick & Jackson) £5.95, 224 pages Three picture books: The Hitler Phenomenon By Henry Picker, Heinrich Hoffmann and Jochen von Lang (David & Charles) £3.50, 223 pages Three picture books: Nicholas H—The Last Tsar By Marvin Lyons (Routledge & Kegan Paul) £6.25, 224 pages. Reviewed by S. M. W. Hickey. Works of reference: The Major International Treaties: 1914–1973 By J. A. S. Grenville (Methuen) £7.90; (University Paperback) £3.95, 575 pages. Reviewed by Cosmo Russell. Works of reference: World Armaments and Disarmament: SIPRI Yearbook 1974 (The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and England) Kr75.00, 526 pages. Reviewed by R.G.S.B. Works of reference: Jane's Infantry Weapons 1975 Edited By Major F. Hobart (Macdonald and Jane's) £19.50, 860 pages Works of reference: Brassey's Infantry Weapons of the World 1975 Edited By Major-General J. I. H. Owen (Brassey's) £14.00, 323 pages