Force Protection Research Articles

Improving the Safety of UN Peacekeepers through Data-Driven Training

Abstract Peace operations personnel are often targeted while on mission by armed groups and individual actors seeking to cause harm. This paper outlines recent events driving force-protection concerns, analyzes trends in peacekeeper fatalities, and proposes steps for improving force-protection research and training in the future. Among our recommendations are continued efforts to monitor and evaluate the experiences of peacekeeping personnel, including but not limited to violent incidents on mission that result in fatalities to peacekeepers or civilians. With that, broadening access to anonymized incident data from the field would facilitate both research and training teams and ultimately allow troop contributing countries (tcc s) to better target the specific needs of their deployed units. Our recommendations are built upon a decade of experience providing pre-deployment force protection training to tcc s through the Identifying Threats in Peacekeeping Environments program. The best way to help personnel stay safe on mission is through an understanding of current trends in the field; improving access to incident data would dramatically help stakeholders understand the points of impact for peacekeeper safety so they can ultimately help deployed personnel stay safe.

Medical Intelligence In Counter-Insurgency (COIN) And Counter-Terrorist (CT) Operations

Medical intelligence (MEDINT) is now regarded as critically important across a broad spectrum of security concerns. Its usual functions are either in force protection, evaluating risks to personnel at the tactical and operational levels, or, at a strategic level, in considering threats to the health and stability of nation-states. The uses of MEDINT in Counter-Terrorism (CT) and Counter-Insurgency (COIN) have received little attention except in so far as they overlap with these concerns; for example, where they involve matters of force-protection or the threat of bioterrorism. But this was not always so. In the past, information relating to health and medicine was considered crucial to the success of COIN operations, if not to domestic terrorism. By adapting some of these techniques to contemporary practice, and utilizing technologies that were not available in former times, we can use MEDINT in innovative ways to exploit the vulnerabilities of hostile groups and to isolate them from surrounding populations. This paper indicates some of the ways in which intelligence from a range of sources can be utilized to engage with communities more effectively; to anticipate the behavior of target groups/individuals; to determine their whereabouts, interactions and supply chains; and ultimately to exploit their weaknesses or dependencies. The paper is not intended as definitive but as a starting point in a conversation as to how MEDINT could or should contribute to CT and COIN operations.

Current State, Needs, and Opportunities for Wearable Robots in Military Medical Rehabilitation and Force Protection.

Despite advances in wearable robots across various fields, there is no consensus definition or design framework for the application of this technology in rehabilitation or musculoskeletal (MSK) injury prevention. This paper aims to define wearable robots and explore their applications and challenges for military rehabilitation and force protection for MSK injury prevention. We conducted a modified Delphi method, including a steering group and 14 panelists with 10+ years of expertise in wearable robots. Panelists presented current wearable robots currently in use or in development for rehabilitation or assistance use in the military workforce and healthcare. The steering group and panelists met to obtain a consensus on the wearable robot definition applicable for rehabilitation or primary injury prevention. Panelists unanimously agreed that wearable robots can be grouped into three main applications, as follows: (1) primary and secondary MSK injury prevention, (2) enhancement of military activities and tasks, and (3) rehabilitation and reintegration. Each application was presented within the context of its target population and state-of-the-art technology currently in use or under development. Capturing expert opinions, this study defines wearable robots for military rehabilitation and MSK injury prevention, identifies health outcomes and assessment tools, and outlines design requirements for future advancements.

Russian operational art for attrition in Ukraine

Originally intended as a swift regime-change operation by the Russian leadership, the Russo-Ukrainian War has evolved into a prolonged war of attrition. In that sense, this paper reassesses the transformation of the Russian way of warfare during the war through a focus on the battles of Severodonetsk-Lysychansk, Kharkiv, Kherson, Bakhmut, Avdiivka, and the Ukrainian Summer Offensive. Accordingly, the theoretical underpinnings of Russian strategy, particularly the enduring influence of Soviet-era legacy, are highlighted in the first part. In the second part, this research offers insights into the Russian military praxis during the war by drawing on various sources, including Telegram channels. It is shown that the Russian army has focused on the combined employment of a new reconnaissance-fire system (ROS), reconnaissance-strike system (RUS), infantry assaults, and umbrella of integrated air defence and electronic warfare systems for force protection and attrition during costly offensives like Bakhmut and Avdiivka. Consequently, this paper asserts that the Russian war machine effectively responded to the necessities of attrition warfare by updating its operational art, drawing on the Soviet legacy.

“When you have to shoot, shoot!” Rethinking the right to life of combatants during armed conflicts

Abstract Does targeting combatants really provide a military advantage during an armed conflict? The limitations on the use of force against civilians and means and methods of warfare are well developed under contemporary international humanitarian law (IHL), but the issue of targetability of adversary combatants remains underdeveloped. This paper builds on contemporary developments in international human rights law and moral just war theory to offer a revised lex ferenda look at the basic principles of IHL through the internalization of the value of the lives of combatants. It is argued that such a reading of IHL would allow for a rejection of the automatic necessity of targeting combatants, and hence give due consideration to the value of life of combatants (both adversary combatants and own combatants) in the evaluation of the use of force during armed conflicts, including through reduced military advantage, force protection, and adjusted proportionality analysis.

Polyurea/Aminopropyl Isobutyl Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxane-Functionalized Graphene Nanoplatelet Nanocomposites for Force Protection Applications.

Herein, the development of new nanocomposite systems is reported based on one-part polyurea (PU) and aminopropyl isobutyl polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS)-functionalized graphene nanoplatelets (GNP-POSS) as compatible nanoreinforcements with the PU resin. GNP-POSS was effectively synthesized via a two-step synthesis protocol, including ultrasonication-assisted reaction and precipitation, and carefully characterized with respect to its chemical and crystalline structure, morphology, and thermal stability. FTIR and XPS spectroscopy analyses revealed that POSS interacts with the residual oxygen moieties of the GNPs through both covalent and noncovalent bonding. The X-ray diffraction pattern of GNP-POSS further revealed that the crystallinity of the GNPs was not altered after their functionalization with POSS. GNP-POSS was successfully incorporated in PU at contents of 1, 3, 5, and 10 wt % to yield PU/GNP-POSS nanocomposite films. An ATR-FTIR analysis of these films confirmed the presence of strong interfacial interactions between the urea groups of PU and the GNP-POSS functionalities. Moreover, the PU/GNP-POSS nanocomposite films exhibited enhanced thermal stability and mechanical properties compared to those of the neat PU film. The quasi-static tensile testing of the PU/GNP-POSS samples revealed remarkable enhancements in the tensile strength (from 7.9 for the neat PU to 25.1 MPa for PU/GNP-POSS) and Young's modulus (238-617 MPa), while elongation at break and toughness also showed 14 and 125% improvements, respectively. Finally, the effects of GNP-POSS content on the morphological, quasistatic tensile, and high-strain-rate dynamic behavior of the PU/GNP-POSS nanocomposite films were also investigated. Overall, the tests performed using a split-Hopkinson pressure bar setup revealed a large increase in the film strength (from 147.6 for the neat PU film to 199 MPa for the PU/GNP-POSS film) and a marginal increase in the energy density of the film (38.1-40.8 kJ/m3). These findings support the suitability of the PU/GNP-POSS nanocomposite films for force protection applications.

Pentagon Found Daily, Metagenomic Detection of Novel Bioaerosol Threats to Be Cost-Prohibitive: Can Virtualization and AI Make It Cost-Effective?

In 2022, the Pentagon Force Protection Agency found threat agnostic detection of novel bioaerosol threats to be "not feasible for daily operations" due to the cost of reagents used for metagenomics, cost of sequencing instruments, and cost of labor for subject matter experts to analyze bioinformatics. Similar operational difficulties might extend to many of the 280,000 buildings (totaling 2.3 billion square feet) at 5,000 secure US Department of Defense military sites, 250 Navy ships, as well as many civilian buildings. These economic barriers can still be addressed in a threat agnostic manner by dynamically pooling samples from dry filter units, called spike-triggered virtualization, whereby pooling and sequencing depth are automatically modulated based on novel biothreats in the sequencing output. By running at a high average pooling factor, the daily and annual cost per dry filter unit can be reduced by 10 to 100 times depending on the chosen trigger thresholds. Artificial intelligence can further enhance the sensitivity of spike-triggered virtualization. The risk of infection during the 12- to 24-hour window between a bioaerosol incident and its detection remains, but in some cases it can be reduced by 80% or more with high-speed indoor air cleaning exceeding 12 air changes per hour, which is similar to the rate of air cleaning in passenger airplanes in flight. That level of air changes per hour or higher is likely to be cost-prohibitive using central heating ventilation and air conditioning systems, but it can be achieved economically by using portable air filtration in rooms with typical ceiling heights (less than 10 feet) for a cost of approximately $0.50 to $1 per square foot for do-it-yourself units and $2 to $5 per square foot for high-efficiency particulate air filters.

Development and Implementation of a Standard Operating Procedure for Military Working Dog Blood Collection, Storage, and Transport.

Military working canines are critical assets and force multipliers for the Joint Force. Most often deployed forward of Role 2 assets, they are reliant on non-veterinary resources when wounded, ill, or injured in an operational environment. Hemorrhagic shock is the most prevalent form of shock seen in battlefield injuries and is most effectively treated with whole blood transfusion. Dogs cannot be transfused with human blood and there is no formal Department of Defense (DoD) canine blood product distribution system to operational settings. A walking blood bank is helpful when multiple dogs are geographically co-located and the resource can be provided to an injured patient quickly. In areas as widely dispersed as the Horn of Africa, the likelihood of co-location is slim and delaying this vital resource can mean the difference between life and death. Therefore, personnel at the Role 2 facility in Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti, filled a critical capability gap for the operational area by producing a local canine whole blood bank with distribution to multiple countries. This protocol can be replicated by other locations to improve medical readiness for the working canines who serve to maintain DoD Force Protection.

Assessing pandemic preparedness, response, and lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic in four south American countries: agenda for the future.

The COVID-19 pandemic emerged in a context that lacked adequate prevention, preparedness, and response (PPR) activities, and global, regional, and national leadership. South American countries were among world's hardest hit by the pandemic, accounting for 10.1% of total cases and 20.1% of global deaths. This study explores how pandemic PPR were affected by political, socioeconomic, and health system contexts as well as how PPR may have shaped pandemic outcomes in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Peru. We then identify lessons learned and advance an agenda for improving PPR capacity at regional and national levels. We do this through a mixed-methods sequential explanatory study in four South American countries based on structured interviews and focus groups with elite policy makers. The results of our study demonstrate that structural and contextual barriers limited PPR activities at political, social, and economic levels in each country, as well as through the structure of the health care system. Respondents believe that top-level government officials had insufficient political will for prioritizing pandemic PPR and post-COVID-19 recovery programs within their countries' health agendas. We recommend a regional COVID-19 task force, post-pandemic recovery, social and economic protection for vulnerable groups, improved primary health care and surveillance systems, risk communication strategies, and community engagement to place pandemic PPR on Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Peru and other South American countries' national public health agendas.

Countering Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) in Military Operations

Although contemporary unmanned systems are used in every environment, they overwhelmingly dominate the airspace. They are commonly called aerial drones or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), while the systems supporting and controlling UAVs are called unmanned aerial systems (UASs). The widespread adoption of aerial drone technology has led to their increasing use on the battlefield. Therefore, finding an effective counter-drone (counter - UAS) weapon has become a serious challenge. This task is particularly difficult because we are dealing with a huge variety of unmanned aerial systems while their numbers are increasing at a record-breaking pace. At this point, there are also no fully proven counter-drone solutions, with most existing systems still in the research phase or newly introduced prototypes. The emerging problems and the set of uncertainties associated with them have become the fundamental basis for addressing and presenting this issue in this publication. This article discusses the crucial subject of defense against unmanned aerial systems from the perspective of modern warfare. The author addresses the question of how to plan and implement counter-drone defense in military operations, as well as what technical solutions could be useful for this purpose. Throughout this study, the author employed various methods, including analysis, synthesis, comparison, and case studies, primarily by examining available open-source information on recent armed conflicts in Nagorno-Karabakh and the ongoing conflict in Ukraine. These methods enabled the author to validate his main hypothesis: there are currently no effective drone countermeasures systems, particularly against drones that can operate autonomously, utilize artificial intelligence algorithms for guidance and decision-making, or engage in large-scale attacks, known as swarms. Simultaneously, the author points out what new technical solutions should be developed to enable effective countermeasures and what tactics should be incorporated into military training to address this threat. Additionally, the article discusses to what extent existing air defense systems can be adapted for counter-drone defense and whether there are effective methods of force protection against such threats.

Kevlar for the Soul: Moral Theology and Force Protection

ABSTRACT This article is an examination of killing in war in its moral and normative dimension – with attention given to how killing affects the acting agent. The author argues against the commonplace belief – often tacitly held if not consciously asserted – among academics, the general public, and even – if surprisingly – military professionals, that killing, including in a justified war, is always morally wrong – even when legally sanctioned and necessary to avert a greater moral wrong. This critique of the “killing is wrong but in war it is necessary” trope is motivated in part by the large numbers of psychiatric battle casualties (specifically moral injury) suffered during operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, and which have attended military activity throughout history. The article approaches the issue through the field of Christian ethical reflection on just war. In building a moral framework for killing in combat, the article explores a typology of homicide, intention, double effect, love, and whether the attitudinal expectations of just warriors in the Christian tradition is realistic in combat. With this moral framework for killing in hand, this article concludes by drawing a critical distinction between moral injury and moral bruising.

Flexible Tactile-Sensing Gripper Design and Excessive Force Protection Function for Endovascular Surgery Robots

Flexible Tactile-Sensing Gripper Design and Excessive Force Protection Function for Endovascular Surgery Robots

Experimental evaluation of flexural behavior of UHPFRC slabs utilizing local constituents

New ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concretes (UHPFRCs) are being developed throughout the world using locally-sourced materials to reduce financial and logistical burdens. Understanding force protection capabilities of these new materials requires experimental data that are useful for validating constitutive models or fast-running computational tools. Flexural performance of two UHPFRCs from different regions of the world are compared via one-way slabs subjected to uniform quasi-static loads. Results are also compared to a normal-strength concrete and two high-strength concretes from different regions. Results showed increased unconfined compressive strength of concrete leads to increased flexural resistance and stiffness. Furthermore, fiber reinforcement greatly increases flexural capacity in slabs but can cause brittle failure when combined with high reinforcement ratios of conventional reinforcement. While the UHPFRCs had different mechanical properties, both increased the maximum flexural capacity and showed potential for significantly improved performance for force protection applications.

Artillery and Drone Action Issues in the War in Ukraine

Abstract Technological developments in recent decades in multiple fields have revolutionised the actions of armed forces, as recently confirmed in the war in Ukraine where NATO countries’ artillery and missiles have undeniably outperformed the outdated spectrum of previous counter-insurgency actions, and the counter-battery fire of self-propelled weapons systems far exceeded the limits of the Iraq and Afghanistan theatres of operations, where such a response was easy to achieve because insurgent forces had no idea that such precise, coordinated and effective action was available at discovered targets. Drones have also become an inseparable part of military operations and have developed in an unprecedented way, being hardly detectable, precise, equipped with weaponry, radars, optoelectronic search means with sensors and modern communication and computer systems. Today, but especially in the future, the actions of drones and artillery means executing counter-battery fire will become indispensable in military operations to achieve desirable effects, and at the same time modern armies must have active and passive means of engagement and countermeasures against them to achieve effective force protection.

Learning in the Force Protection Environment between International Operations: Last-Minute Learning

This study considers learning in international military operations. It explores these questions: What are the obstacles to learning in a military context? How did these obstacles manifest themselves in contribution made by the Royal Norwegian Air Force (RNoAF) in Mali? How effective in overcoming these obstacles were the formal and informal learning processes that took place? And what does this tell us about how learning might be improved in a military context? Norway has supported the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) since 2013. The RNoAF contribution began in January 2016 and continued periodically until May 2021. The contribution consisted of a Hercules C130 transport aircraft with crew and other support personnel. The detachment from Norway consisted of approximately 60–70 women and men with backgrounds in various fields of expertise (aviators, navigators, cargo masters, technicians, security personnel, and other support personnel) required to execute the mission. Based on in-depth interviews of key personnel, this study looks at learning that took place among the various constellations of personnel from the force protection responsible for security during the operation. Much of the learning took place through last-minute efforts because of tight schedules and other pressing tasks. The study has resulted in a conceptual model for facilitating and better supporting the acquisition of knowledge through a continuous process rather than at the last minute. This will require top-down and bottom-up processes, both formal and informal.

History of mountain warfare

Mountain warfare has thousands of years of history and presents numerous challenges to military operations. History proves, that this environment has decreased combat strength, caused more casualties than the enemy in some operations and influenced war tactics significantly. Mountain warfare has an increasing frequency due to withdrawal areas for hostile forces, being home of ethnic minorities, being origin of many water supplies and being a natural frontier between countries. Mountains influence all warfighting functions, but especially movement and manoeuvre (mobility) and force protection (health support). To overcome the hardships of mountain warfare, special mountain units including support elements are mandatory, especially for health service support.

Simulation of a real-time dual-loop control system for high-quality personalized cardiopulmonary resuscitation

An individualized high-quality cardiopulmonary resuscitation (HqCPR) is more beneficial for improving outcomes. The current study aimed to develop a personalized HqCPR system with a standard dual closed-loop feedback control. The dual closed-loop control had features such as distance depth control and compression force protection. An ultrasound probe was used to detect the anteroposterior diameter (APD) in real-time, thereby identifying the next compression depth. An air pump was added to Resusci Anne to adjust the APD during simulation. Next, three springs were added to simulate three different human organs. Four sensors simultaneously detected the force distribution of each compression. The normal operation force range was determined in the pretest stage. Two-min CPR was performed at three different temperatures. The compression depth was almost equal to one-third of the APD of Resusci Anne. There were no significant differences in terms of APD and compression depth between the three different temperatures. The personalized chest compression depth was one-third of the APD, which is the current standard in HqCPR. If the compression force was greater than 1.53–12.52 kg, which is the normal range, the compression system was automatically interrupted. Despite in simulation stage currently, the proposed real-time dual-loop control system provided the feasible for next generation HqCPR mechanical device.

A Novel Single-arm Single-port Micro-traumatic Laparoscopic Robotic Surgical System

As the robotic assisted single port surgery arousing attention, a novel single-arm single-port micro-traumatic laparoscopic robotic surgical system is proposed in this study. From the perspective of the mechanics, joints with high rigidity and high reliability were utilized to realize the remote center of motion (RCM). Besides, the cost of consumables was reduced by adding the support of the rigid endoscope. From the perspective of the algorithm, high-precision motion control method and feedback force protection mechanism were implemented. The effectiveness of the aforementioned characteristics were verified by five clinical experiments of cholecystectomy. The results showed that the system is able to reduce the amount of bleeding, accelerate the patient recovery, reduce the infection risk and shorten the learning period. The robotic surgical system had significant clinical application value.

CyberNSOF – A CRUCIAL FORCE MULTIPLIER IN MODERN WARFARE

Cyber security and special operations (CyberSOF) in the 21st century are constantly evolving and changing to meet today's threats. CyberSOF are constantly evolving as allied countries, strategic partners and key players in the Black Sea discover new tactics to achieve strategic objectives. So far, the one that has remained below the threshold of armed conflict by operating in the grey zone is the Russian Federation. The annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation is the first strong indicator that CyberSOF binomial operations have been executed. The Romanian Naval Special Operations Forces community is still developing specific guidelines or responses to deter or prevent a major cyber attack on Romania and its NATO partners. This research addresses an aspect of special operations and cyber community that has yet to be explained adequately. To achieve this goal, we will describe how the symbiotic relationship between Naval Special Operations Forces and Cyber Defense Command is crucial within the national military instrument of power at the strategic level and the impact of this binomial on the operational and tactical levels of hybrid conflict can be treated as both a force multiplier and force protection generator for Naval Forces and beyond. According to the specified causes to achieve our objectives, we will present the concept of Cyber Operations and Naval Forces for Special Operations (CyberNSOF), a novel concept that can produce strategic-level effects with minimal forces. Although the two entities presented above are services in the Romanian Military, used as a binomial (CyberNSOF) in support of the supported element, will be able to be used both as force multiplier, force protection element and last but not least as forces executing pre-emptive actions to deter the enemy. Taking these recommendations into account will increase the effectiveness of SOF maritime operations with the support of cyberoperations while ensuring the transition to a robust/ real joint capability in response to any emerging existing threats.

Infectious Disease Teleconsultation to the Deployed U.S. Military From 2017-2022.

The ADvanced VIrtual Support for OpeRational Forces (ADVISOR) program is a synchronous telemedicine system developed in 2017 to provide 24/7 remote expert support to U.S. Military and NATO clinicians engaged in medical care in austere locations. Infectious disease (ID) remains the highest consulted service since 2018 and is currently staffed by 10 adult and pediatric ID physicians within the Military Health System. We conducted a retrospective review of the ID ADVISOR calls between 2017 and 2022 to identify trends and better prepare military ID physicians to address urgent ID consultations in overseas settings. Health records of the ID consultations between July 2017 and January 2022 were reviewed for local caregiver and patient demographics, case descriptions, consultant recommendations, and outcomes. A "not research" determination was made by the Brooke Army Medical Center Human Research Protections Office. ID physicians received 57 calls for 60 urgent patient consultations. Most calls were from countries in the Middle East or in Southwest Asia (United States Central Command (USCENTCOM)), followed by countries in Africa (United States Africa Command (USAFRICOM)). The majority of patients were active duty U.S. Military and were generally male with median age of 25 years. All consults involved an initial phone consultation and 30% continued over email. Ninety percent of the calls were initiated by physicians, and the median time from injury or illness-onset to consult was 3 days. Seventy percent of the consult questions involved treatment and further diagnostics, but one-third of cases required assistance with management of disease prevention. Multidrug-resistant or nosocomial infections, animal or bite exposure, malaria and malaria prevention, febrile illness, and blood-borne pathogen exposure accounted for 63% of the consults. Collaboration with other specialties took place in a minority of cases, and follow-up contact was recommended 20% of the time. Most recommendations involved adjusting drug regimens or further testing. Medical evacuation was only recommended in five of the cases. Although there was limited ability for follow-up, no known deaths occurred. A high proportion of calls to the ID ADVISOR line are relevant to the overlapping content areas of infection prevention, force protection, and outbreak response. Most patients requiring urgent ID consultation were managed successfully without evacuation. The current military-unique ID fellowship curriculum is consistent with the encountered diagnoses per the ID ADVISOR line, and high-yield individual topics have been identified.